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Cruentation (Latin: "ius cruentationis" or "Ius feretri sive sandapilae") was one of the medieval methods of finding proof against a suspected murderer. The common belief was that the body of the victim would spontaneously bleed in the presence of the murderer. Cruentation was used in Germanic law systems as early as the medieval period, whence it spread to Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Scotland, and European colonies in North America. In Germany it was used as a method to find proof of guilt until the middle of the 18th century.

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  • Bahrprobe (de)
  • Cruentation (en)
  • Cruentation (fr)
  • Bloedrecht (nl)
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  • La cruentation est une croyance du Moyen Âge, répandue jusqu'au XVIIe siècle, selon laquelle les plaies d'un cadavre recommencent à saigner en présence de l'assassin de celui-ci. Cette superstition fut employée pour confondre des meurtriers en leur faisant subir « l'épreuve du cercueil », soit les faire passer devant le corps d'une victime pour voir si une éventuelle hémorragie les trahirait. (fr)
  • Het bloedrecht, ook baarproef of bloedproef geheten, (Latijn: "ius cruentationis" of "Ius feretri sine sandapilae"), was een van de bewijsmiddelen in het middeleeuwse strafrecht. Men bracht een verdachte in de omgeving van het opgebaarde lichaam van een slachtoffer van moord en keek of de wonden spontaan weer gingen bloeden. Wanneer dat gebeurde werd dat als een aanwijzing, zelfs als bewijs, van schuld gezien. Een "sandapila" is in het Latijn een goedkope baar of een goedkope lijkkist. Het Latijnse werkwoord "cruentare" betekent bloederig maken of met bloed besmeuren. (nl)
  • Die Bahrprobe (auch Bahrrecht und Scheines Recht, lat. ius cruentationis „Blutungsrecht“) war im Mittelalter ein Gottesurteil (Ordal), mit dem man in einem Mordfall den Mörder zu finden hoffte oder mit dem ein des Mordes Angeklagter seine Unschuld zu beweisen versuchte. Als älteste die Bahrprobe als Prozessinstitut beschreibende Rechtsquelle des deutschen Raumes gilt das Freisinger Rechtsbuch von 1328 (Art. 273), wonach man das Prozedere des Gottesurteils sogar an bereits bestatteten Mordopfern durchführen sollte. Bekannt geworden ist die Bahrprobe an Hans Spiess in Ettiswil anno 1503. (de)
  • Cruentation (Latin: "ius cruentationis" or "Ius feretri sive sandapilae") was one of the medieval methods of finding proof against a suspected murderer. The common belief was that the body of the victim would spontaneously bleed in the presence of the murderer. Cruentation was used in Germanic law systems as early as the medieval period, whence it spread to Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Scotland, and European colonies in North America. In Germany it was used as a method to find proof of guilt until the middle of the 18th century. (en)
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  • Cruentation (Latin: "ius cruentationis" or "Ius feretri sive sandapilae") was one of the medieval methods of finding proof against a suspected murderer. The common belief was that the body of the victim would spontaneously bleed in the presence of the murderer. Cruentation was used in Germanic law systems as early as the medieval period, whence it spread to Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Scotland, and European colonies in North America. In Germany it was used as a method to find proof of guilt until the middle of the 18th century. Early modern trials privileged explicit human testimony over forensic evidence, unless that evidence represented the testimony of a divine being (i.e., God). But not all cases could be resolved simply by obtaining a confession; in cases where it was difficult for the jurors to determine whether someone accused of murder was guilty or innocent, the case could be solved by means of a trial by ordeal. In the case of cruentation, the accused was brought before the corpse of the murder victim and was made to put his or her hands on it. If the wounds of the corpse then began to bleed or other unusual visual signs appeared, that was regarded as God's verdict, announcing that the accused was guilty. At the same time, cruentation alone rarely convicted a suspect; more often, the psychological impact of the test caused the suspect to confess. Cruentation was also commonly cited in medieval Europe as evidence against Jews accused of committing ritual murder. Multiple instances of cruentation are described in Thomas of Cantimpré’s mid-13th century work, Bonum universale de apibus (On Bees). In these stories, Jews are accused of torturing and murdering young Christian children, evocative of the narrative of Jews crucifying Jesus. One of the more notable cases was that of Margaretha, a seven-year-old Christian girl in Germany. While Margaretha’s story was described rather vaguely by Thomas of Cantimpré, the tale grew increasingly infamous and detailed as it spread throughout Europe and was elaborated on by later authors. Thomas claims that a group of Jews purchased Margaretha from her mother; they gagged her, beat her, and slashed her body with knives. Afterwards, the Jews weighed her dead body down to the bottom of a river with stones. A few days later a fisherman found her body and carried it throughout the town, claiming the Jews had committed this malicious act. In the case of Margaretha and other ritual murder stories, as soon as the local Jews were in the presence of the Christian child’s corpse, the corpse began to spout blood and occasionally reanimate as if to beg for revenge against their Jewish murderers. The cruentation, Thomas claims, was a testimony to the Jews guilt. Cruentation was essential to developing the antisemitic myth of ritual murder and also is related to that of blood libel. Works following the 13th century On Bees describe similar narratives that rely on cruentation as a piece of evidence stacked against Jews accused of the deaths of Christian children in Europe. It is important to note that Thomas never names the little girl –– later stories identify her as Margaretha. Additionally, there has been uncertainty surrounding the date and location Cruentation appears in many texts relating to criminal procedure: the Malleus Maleficarum, or King James' Daemonologie. Nonetheless, contemporaries drew a distinction between cruentation and (to a modern observer) equally occult practices. Other forms of trial by ordeal vanished during the centuries before cruentation's demise, precisely because they (hubristically) effected divine judgement. As the practice of anatomical dissection became more prevalent, medical professions became increasingly aware of circumstances in which dead bodies could autochthonously emit fluids. Cruentative procedures became increasingly stringent, and in 1545, Antonius Blancus was the first to question the reliability of cruentation as a practice. Nonetheless, the first published refutation appeared in 1669, more than a century later. Yet 's Systema jurisprudentiae medicae [System of Forensic Medicine], published almost a century later, still encourages investigators to rely on torture and cruentation. The rise of anatomical approaches to sanguine emissions also coincided with disruption in the theological underpinnings of cruentation. After the Lutheran Reformation the practice of cruentation was unwarranted from a legal point of view in Denmark and Norway, and during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries leading theologians of the Danish Church condemned it several times. Nevertheless, cruentation continued to be used well into the eighteenth century, and its outcome continued to be accepted as evidence by law courts – indeed, in a few cases, the ordeal was overseen or even organized by clergymen. Apparently the practice was so popular that it continued to remain judicially sanctioned for some time even when that meant circumventing the official teaching of the Protestant state church. (en)
  • Die Bahrprobe (auch Bahrrecht und Scheines Recht, lat. ius cruentationis „Blutungsrecht“) war im Mittelalter ein Gottesurteil (Ordal), mit dem man in einem Mordfall den Mörder zu finden hoffte oder mit dem ein des Mordes Angeklagter seine Unschuld zu beweisen versuchte. Der Verdächtige wurde an die aufgebahrte Leiche geführt. Er hatte daraufhin seine Hand auf die Wunde zu legen und in einer festgelegten Eidformel seine Unschuld zu schwören. Fing die Leiche wieder an zu bluten, galt der Verdächtige als schuldig, andernfalls als unschuldig. Die Bahrprobe basierte auf der Annahme, dass der Geist des Verstorbenen noch im Körper vorhanden war („lebender Leichnam“) und durch das Bluten den Verlust seines Körpers rächen wollte. Als älteste die Bahrprobe als Prozessinstitut beschreibende Rechtsquelle des deutschen Raumes gilt das Freisinger Rechtsbuch von 1328 (Art. 273), wonach man das Prozedere des Gottesurteils sogar an bereits bestatteten Mordopfern durchführen sollte. Die Bahrprobe ist im Nibelungenlied erwähnt und wurde in Einzelfällen noch bis in das 17. und 18. Jahrhundert angewandt. Dabei erfuhr sie allerdings einen Funktionswandel vom Inquisitionsmittel zum Indiz. Doch scheint sie stets nur als subsidiäres Auskunftsmittel, sozusagen als letzter Ausweg, in Betracht gekommen zu sein. Im Zuge der Aufklärung wurde sie endgültig aus dem Rechtsleben entfernt. Bekannt geworden ist die Bahrprobe an Hans Spiess in Ettiswil anno 1503. (de)
  • La cruentation est une croyance du Moyen Âge, répandue jusqu'au XVIIe siècle, selon laquelle les plaies d'un cadavre recommencent à saigner en présence de l'assassin de celui-ci. Cette superstition fut employée pour confondre des meurtriers en leur faisant subir « l'épreuve du cercueil », soit les faire passer devant le corps d'une victime pour voir si une éventuelle hémorragie les trahirait. (fr)
  • Het bloedrecht, ook baarproef of bloedproef geheten, (Latijn: "ius cruentationis" of "Ius feretri sine sandapilae"), was een van de bewijsmiddelen in het middeleeuwse strafrecht. Men bracht een verdachte in de omgeving van het opgebaarde lichaam van een slachtoffer van moord en keek of de wonden spontaan weer gingen bloeden. Wanneer dat gebeurde werd dat als een aanwijzing, zelfs als bewijs, van schuld gezien. Een "sandapila" is in het Latijn een goedkope baar of een goedkope lijkkist. Het Latijnse werkwoord "cruentare" betekent bloederig maken of met bloed besmeuren. (nl)
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