. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "#c6dbf7"@en . . . . . . . . . "English contract law"@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "right"@en . . . . . . . . . "left"@en . . . . . . . . . . "Lord Denning MR in George Mitchell Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd [1982] EWCA Civ 5"@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Das Contract Law Englands und Wales' ist der Teil der Rechtsordnung Englands und Wales', der sich mit den Voraussetzungen und Wirkungen von Vertr\u00E4gen besch\u00E4ftigt. Er beinhaltet somit gr\u00F6\u00DFtenteils Rechtsgebiete, die ihre funktionalen \u00C4quivalente in der und im allgemeinen Schuldrecht der Rechtsordnungen des deutschen Rechtskreises finden. Eine Besonderheit des common law ist die Forderung von Consideration (etwa \u201AGegenleistung\u2018) f\u00FCr die Wirksamkeit eines Vertrages."@de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "JS Mill, Principles of Political Economy Book V, ch 1, \u00A72"@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "En droit anglais, le contrat est une promesse ou un accord r\u00E9alis\u00E9 sur un ensemble de promesses. La rupture d'un contrat est reconnue par le droit, et des rem\u00E8des juridiques peuvent y \u00EAtre apport\u00E9s. Le contrat consensuel (simple contract) est domin\u00E9 par le principe de la consideration qui n'admet pas de contrat \u00E0 titre gratuit. L'on\u00E9rosit\u00E9 est ainsi un \u00E9l\u00E9ment essentiel \u00E0 la formation du contrat, pour laquelle il faut une contrepartie \u00E0 une promesse, qu'il s'agisse d'un paiement ou d'une prestation r\u00E9ciproque. Par contre, le contrat solennel \u00E9chappe \u00E0 la consideration."@fr . . . . . . . . . . . "1090373437"^^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence Part I, Introduction"@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . "\"None of you nowadays will remember the trouble we had \u2013 when I was called to the Bar \u2013 with exemption clauses. They were printed in small print on the back of tickets and order forms and invoices. They were contained in catalogues or timetables. They were held to be binding on any person who took them without objection. No one ever did object. He never read them or knew what was in them. No matter how unreasonable they were, he was bound. All this was done in the name of \"freedom of contract.\" But the freedom was all on the side of the big concern which had the use of the printing press. No freedom for the little man who took the ticket or order form or invoice. The big concern said, \"Take it or leave it.\" The little man had no option but to take it.... When the courts said to the big concern, \"You must put it in clear words,\" the big concern had no hesitation in doing so. It knew well that the little man would never read the exemption clauses or understand them. It was a bleak winter for our law of contract.\""@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "'governments do not limit their concern with contracts to a simple enforcement. They take upon themselves to determine what contracts are fit to be enforced.... once it is admitted that there are any engagements which for reasons of expediency the law ought not to enforce, the same question is necessarily opened with respect to all engagements. Whether, for example, the law should enforce a contract to labour, when the wages are too low or the hours of work too severe: whether it should enforce a contract by which a person binds himself to remain, for more than a very limited period, in the service of a given individual.... Every question which can possibly arise as to the policy of contracts, and of the relations which they establish among human beings, is a question for the legislator; and one which he cannot escape from considering, and in some way or other deciding.\u2019"@en . . . "En droit anglais, le contrat est une promesse ou un accord r\u00E9alis\u00E9 sur un ensemble de promesses. La rupture d'un contrat est reconnue par le droit, et des rem\u00E8des juridiques peuvent y \u00EAtre apport\u00E9s. Le contrat consensuel (simple contract) est domin\u00E9 par le principe de la consideration qui n'admet pas de contrat \u00E0 titre gratuit. L'on\u00E9rosit\u00E9 est ainsi un \u00E9l\u00E9ment essentiel \u00E0 la formation du contrat, pour laquelle il faut une contrepartie \u00E0 une promesse, qu'il s'agisse d'un paiement ou d'une prestation r\u00E9ciproque. Par contre, le contrat solennel \u00E9chappe \u00E0 la consideration."@fr . . . . . . . . . . "Contrat en droit anglais"@fr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "\u82F1\u56FD\u5408\u540C\u6CD5\uFF08\u82F1\u8A9E\uFF1AEnglish contract law\uFF09\u662F\u82F1\u56FD\u89C4\u5B9A\u5408\u540C\u7684\u6CD5\u5F8B\u3002\u5B83\u7EE7\u627F\u81EA\uFF0C\u53D7\u8FC7\u53F8\u6CD5\u80FD\u52A8\u4E3B\u4E49\u7684\u5F71\u54CD\uFF0C\u56E0\u6B64\u4E0E\u3001\u548C\u7B49 \u4EE5\u53CA\u7F8E\u56FD\u7684\u5408\u540C\u6CD5\u6709\u5171\u540C\u4E4B\u5904\u3002\u7531\u4E8E\u82F1\u56FD\u662F\u6B27\u76DF\u6210\u5458\u548C\u56FD\u9645\u7EDF\u4E00\u79C1\u6CD5\u534F\u4F1A\u6210\u5458\uFF0C\u6B64\u6CD5\u5F8B\u76EE\u524D\u6B63\u5728\u9010\u6E10\u8C03\u6574\u3002 \u53EF\u4EE5\u7531\u6CD5\u5EAD\u5F3A\u5236\u6267\u884C\u7684\u534F\u8BAE\u5C31\u662F\u5408\u540C\u3002\u56E0\u4E3A\u5408\u540C\u662F\u4E4B\u503A\uFF0C\u4E0D\u540C\u4E8E\u4FB5\u6B0A\u884C\u70BA\u8207\u4E0D\u7576\u5F97\u5229\uFF0C\u6240\u4EE5\u82F1\u56FD\u6CD5\u5F8B\u5C24\u5176\u91CD\u89C6\u9A8C\u5B9A\u4EBA\u4EEC\u786E\u5B9E\u5141\u8BFA\u8FC7\u6CD5\u5EAD\u4E0A\u6D89\u53CA\u7684\u7EA6\u5B9A\u3002\u901A\u5E38\u6765\u8BB2\uFF0C\u4E00\u65B9\u4F5C\u51FA\u8981\u7EA6\uFF0C\u53E6\u4E00\u65B9\u63A5\u53D7\u8BE5\u8981\u7EA6\uFF08\u8868\u793A\u540C\u610F\uFF0C\u6216\u5C65\u884C\u8981\u7EA6\u6761\u6B3E\uFF09\u4E4B\u540E\uFF0C\u5C31\u5F62\u6210\u5408\u540C\u3002\u5982\u679C\u5408\u540C\u6761\u6B3E\u662F\u786E\u5B9A\u7684\uFF0C\u5E76\u4E14\u5F53\u4E8B\u4EBA\u7684\u884C\u4E3A\u8868\u660E\u4ED6\u4EEC\u7B54\u5E94\u8FD9\u4E9B\u6761\u6B3E\uFF0C\u901A\u5E38\u60C5\u51B5\u4E0B\u6B64\u534F\u8BAE\u5C31\u53EF\u5F3A\u5236\u6267\u884C\u3002\u67D0\u4E9B\u5408\u540C\u8FD8\u8981\u6C42\u8981\u6B63\u5F0F\u7684\u7B7E\u540D\u624B\u7EED\u548C\u89C1\u8BC1\u4EBA\u2014\u2014\u6BD4\u5982\u50CF\u571F\u5730\u4E70\u5356\u8FD9\u79CD\u5927\u7B14\u4EA4\u6613\u3002\u5BF9\u4E8E\u8FD9\u7C7B\u5408\u540C\uFF0C\u82F1\u56FD\u6CD5\u6BD4\u5176\u4ED6\u6B27\u6D32\u6CD5\u8981\u6C42\u66F4\u4E25\uFF0C\u5B83\u8981\u6C42\u6240\u6709\u5F53\u4E8B\u65B9\u4E3A\u8BE5\u8BAE\u5B9A\u4EA4\u6613\u90FD\u8981\u63D0\u4F9B\u6709\u4EF7\u503C\u7684\u4E8B\u7269\uFF08\u79F0\u4E3A\uFF09\uFF0C\u8FD9\u662F\u5F3A\u5236\u6267\u884C\u7684\u524D\u63D0\u3002"@zh . . . . . . . . . . . . . "English contract law is the body of law that regulates legally binding agreements in England and Wales. With its roots in the lex mercatoria and the activism of the judiciary during the industrial revolution, it shares a heritage with countries across the Commonwealth (such as Australia, Canada, India), from membership in the European Union, continuing membership in Unidroit, and to a lesser extent the United States. Any agreement that is enforceable in court is a contract. A contract is a voluntary obligation, contrasting to the duty to not violate others rights in tort or unjust enrichment. English law places a high value on ensuring people have truly consented to the deals that bind them in court, so long as they comply with statutory and human rights. Generally a contract forms when one person makes an offer, and another person accepts it by communicating their assent or performing the offer's terms. If the terms are certain, and the parties can be presumed from their behaviour to have intended that the terms are binding, generally the agreement is enforceable. Some contracts, particularly for large transactions such as a sale of land, also require the formalities of signatures and witnesses and English law goes further than other European countries by requiring all parties bring something of value, known as \"consideration\", to a bargain as a precondition to enforce it. Contracts can be made personally or through an agent acting on behalf of a principal, if the agent acts within what a reasonable person would think they have the authority to do. In principle, English law grants people broad freedom to agree the content of a deal. Terms in an agreement are incorporated through express promises, by reference to other terms or potentially through a course of dealing between two parties. Those terms are interpreted by the courts to seek out the true intention of the parties, from the perspective of an objective observer, in the context of their bargaining environment. Where there is a gap, courts typically imply terms to fill the spaces, but also through the 20th century both the judiciary and legislature have intervened more and more to strike out surprising and unfair terms, particularly in favour of consumers, employees or tenants with weaker bargaining power. Contract law works best when an agreement is performed, and recourse to the courts is never needed because each party knows their rights and duties. However, where an unforeseen event renders an agreement very hard, or even impossible to perform, the courts typically will construe the parties to want to have released themselves from their obligations. It may also be that one party simply breaches a contract's terms. If a contract is not substantially performed, then the innocent party is entitled to cease their own performance and sue for damages to put them in the position as if the contract were performed. They are under a duty to mitigate their own losses and cannot claim for harm that was a remote consequence of the contractual breach, but remedies in English law are footed on the principle that full compensation for all losses, pecuniary or not, should be made good. In exceptional circumstances, the law goes further to require a wrongdoer to make restitution for their gains from breaching a contract, and may demand specific performance of the agreement rather than monetary compensation. It is also possible that a contract becomes voidable, because, depending on the specific type of contract, one party failed to make adequate disclosure or they made misrepresentations during negotiations. Unconscionable agreements can be escaped where a person was under duress or undue influence or their vulnerability was being exploited when they ostensibly agreed to a deal. Children, mentally incapacitated people, and companies whose representatives are acting wholly outside their authority, are protected against having agreements enforced against them where they lacked the real capacity to make a decision to enter an agreement. Some transactions are considered illegal, and are not enforced by courts because of a statute or on grounds of public policy. In theory, English law attempts to adhere to a principle that people should only be bound when they have given their informed and true consent to a contract."@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Contract law (England und Wales)"@de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Das Contract Law Englands und Wales' ist der Teil der Rechtsordnung Englands und Wales', der sich mit den Voraussetzungen und Wirkungen von Vertr\u00E4gen besch\u00E4ftigt. Er beinhaltet somit gr\u00F6\u00DFtenteils Rechtsgebiete, die ihre funktionalen \u00C4quivalente in der und im allgemeinen Schuldrecht der Rechtsordnungen des deutschen Rechtskreises finden. Eine Besonderheit des common law ist die Forderung von Consideration (etwa \u201AGegenleistung\u2018) f\u00FCr die Wirksamkeit eines Vertrages."@de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "English contract law is the body of law that regulates legally binding agreements in England and Wales. With its roots in the lex mercatoria and the activism of the judiciary during the industrial revolution, it shares a heritage with countries across the Commonwealth (such as Australia, Canada, India), from membership in the European Union, continuing membership in Unidroit, and to a lesser extent the United States. Any agreement that is enforceable in court is a contract. A contract is a voluntary obligation, contrasting to the duty to not violate others rights in tort or unjust enrichment. English law places a high value on ensuring people have truly consented to the deals that bind them in court, so long as they comply with statutory and human rights."@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "203168"^^ . "\"The foundation of contract is the reasonable expectation, which the person who promises raises in the person to whom he binds himself; of which the satisfaction may be exerted by force.\""@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "\u82F1\u56FD\u5408\u540C\u6CD5\uFF08\u82F1\u8A9E\uFF1AEnglish contract law\uFF09\u662F\u82F1\u56FD\u89C4\u5B9A\u5408\u540C\u7684\u6CD5\u5F8B\u3002\u5B83\u7EE7\u627F\u81EA\uFF0C\u53D7\u8FC7\u53F8\u6CD5\u80FD\u52A8\u4E3B\u4E49\u7684\u5F71\u54CD\uFF0C\u56E0\u6B64\u4E0E\u3001\u548C\u7B49 \u4EE5\u53CA\u7F8E\u56FD\u7684\u5408\u540C\u6CD5\u6709\u5171\u540C\u4E4B\u5904\u3002\u7531\u4E8E\u82F1\u56FD\u662F\u6B27\u76DF\u6210\u5458\u548C\u56FD\u9645\u7EDF\u4E00\u79C1\u6CD5\u534F\u4F1A\u6210\u5458\uFF0C\u6B64\u6CD5\u5F8B\u76EE\u524D\u6B63\u5728\u9010\u6E10\u8C03\u6574\u3002 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. . . . . . . . . . . . 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