. . . . . . . . . . . "Philosophy of logic"@en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u54F2\u5B66\uFF08\u308D\u3093\u308A\u304C\u304F\u306E\u3066\u3064\u304C\u304F\u3001\u82F1\u8A9E\uFF1Aphilosophy of logic\uFF09\u306F\u3001\u54F2\u5B66\u306E\u4E00\u9818\u57DF\u3067\u3042\u308B\u3002\u305D\u308C\u306F\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u5730\u4F4D\u3084\u65B9\u6CD5\u8AD6\u306B\u3064\u3044\u3066\u306E\u30E1\u30BF\u5B66\u554F\u3067\u3042\u308B\u3002\u8AD6\u7406\u54F2\u5B66\u3068\u3082\u3002 \u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u54F2\u5B66\u306F\u3001\u54F2\u5B66\u7684\u554F\u984C\u306B\u5F62\u5F0F\u7684\u8AD6\u7406\u7684\u6280\u8853\u3092\u5FDC\u7528\u3059\u308B\u54F2\u5B66\u7684\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66 (philosophical logic, philosophical logics) \u3068\u6DF7\u540C\u3055\u308C\u308B\u3002"@ja . . . "Philosophy of logic is the area of philosophy that studies the scope and nature of logic. It investigates the philosophical problems raised by logic, such as the presuppositions often implicitly at work in theories of logic and in their application. This involves questions about how logic is to be defined and how different logical systems are connected to each other. It includes the study of the nature of the fundamental concepts used by logic and the relation of logic to other disciplines. According to a common characterization, philosophical logic is the part of the philosophy of logic that studies the application of logical methods to philosophical problems, often in the form of extended logical systems like modal logic. But other theorists draw the distinction between the philosophy of logic and philosophical logic differently or not at all. Metalogic is closely related to the philosophy of logic as the discipline investigating the properties of formal logical systems, like consistency and completeness. Various characterizations of the are found in the academic literature. Logic is often seen as the study of the laws of thought, correct reasoning, valid inference, or logical truth. It is a formal science that investigates how conclusions follow from premises in a topic-neutral manner, i.e. independent of the specific subject matter discussed. One form of inquiring into the nature of logic focuses on the commonalities between various logical formal systems and on how they differ from non-logical formal systems. Important considerations in this respect are whether the formal system in question is compatible with fundamental logical intuitions and whether it is complete. Different conceptions of logic can be distinguished according to whether they define logic as the study of valid inference or logical truth. A further distinction among conceptions of logic is based on whether the criteria of valid inference and logical truth are specified in terms of syntax or semantics. Different are often distinguished. Logic is usually understood as formal logic and is treated as such for most of this article. Formal logic is only interested in the form of arguments, expressed in a formal language, and focuses on deductive inferences. Informal logic, on the other hand, addresses a much wider range of arguments found also in natural language, which include non-deductive arguments. The correctness of arguments may depend on other factors than their form, like their content or their context. Various logical formal systems or logics have been developed in the 20th century and it is the task of the philosophy of logic to classify them, to show how they are related to each other, and to address the problem of how there can be a manifold of logics in contrast to one universally true logic. These logics can be divided into classical logic, usually identified with first-order logic, extended logics, and deviant logics. Extended logics accept the basic formalism and the axioms of classical logic but extend them with new logical vocabulary. Deviant logics, on the other hand, reject certain core assumptions of classical logic and are therefore incompatible with it. The philosophy of logic also investigates the nature and philosophical implications of the . This includes the problem of truth, especially of logical truth, which may be defined as truth depending only on the meanings of the logical terms used. Another question concerns the nature of premises and conclusions, i.e. whether to understand them as thoughts, propositions, or sentences, and how they are composed of simpler constituents. Together, premises and a conclusion constitute an inference, which can be either deductive and ampliative depending on whether it is necessarily truth-preserving or introduces new and possibly false information. A central concern in logic is whether a deductive inference is valid or not. Validity is often defined in terms of necessity, i.e. an inference is valid if and only if it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Incorrect inferences and arguments, on the other hand, fail to support their conclusion. They can be categorized as formal or informal fallacies depending on whether they belong to formal or informal logic. Logic has mostly been concerned with definitory rules, i.e. with the question of which rules of inference determine whether an argument is valid or not. A separate topic of inquiry concerns the strategic rules of logic: the rules governing how to reach an intended conclusion given a certain set of premises, i.e. which inferences need to be drawn to arrive there. The is concerned with the metaphysical status of the laws and objects of logic. An important dispute in this field is between realists, who hold that logic is based on facts that have mind-independent existence, and anti-realists like conventionalists, who hold that the laws of logic are based on the conventions governing the use of language. Logic is closely related to . A central issue in regard to ontology concerns the ontological commitments associated with the use of logic, for example, with singular terms and existential quantifiers. An important question in mathematics is whether all mathematical truths can be grounded in the axioms of logic together with set theory. Other related fields include computer science and psychology."@en . . . . . . . "\u0424\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0456\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438 \u2014 \u0444\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0441\u044C\u043A\u0438\u0439 \u043F\u0456\u0434\u0445\u0456\u0434 \u0434\u043E \u0440\u043E\u0437\u0443\u043C\u0456\u043D\u043D\u044F \u0442\u0438\u043F\u0456\u0432 / \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043C \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438, \u0457\u0457 \u0437\u043D\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043D\u043D\u044F \u0456 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043E\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043D\u043D\u044F, \u0442\u043E\u0431\u0442\u043E \u0444\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0456\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438 \u2014 \u0440\u043E\u0437\u0434\u0456\u043B \u0444\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0456\u0457, \u044F\u043A\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0439\u043C\u0430\u0454\u0442\u044C\u0441\u044F \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043A\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043E\u043C \u0456 \u043E\u0431\u0491\u0440\u0443\u043D\u0442\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043D\u043D\u044F\u043C \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043C \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438. \u0420\u043E\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u043E\u043A \u0456 \u0432\u0438\u043E\u043A\u0440\u0435\u043C\u043B\u0435\u043D\u043D\u044F \u0444\u043E\u0440\u043C\u0430\u043B\u044C\u043D\u043E\u0457 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438 \u043D\u0430\u0440\u0456\u0432\u043D\u0456 \u0437 \u0441\u0438\u043C\u0432\u043E\u043B\u0456\u0447\u043D\u043E\u044E \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u043E\u044E \u0432 \u043A\u0456\u043D\u0446\u0456 \u0434\u0435\u0432'\u044F\u0442\u043D\u0430\u0434\u0446\u044F\u0442\u043E\u0433\u043E \u0441\u0442\u043E\u043B\u0456\u0442\u0442\u044F \u0456 \u043C\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043C\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043D\u043E\u0457 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438 \u0432 \u0434\u0432\u0430\u0434\u0446\u044F\u0442\u043E\u043C\u0443, \u0432\u0438\u044F\u0432\u0438\u043B\u0438, \u0449\u043E \u0442\u0435\u043C\u0438, \u044F\u043A\u0456 \u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0456\u0439\u043D\u043E \u0440\u043E\u0437\u0433\u043B\u044F\u0434\u0430\u043B\u0430 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0430, \u043D\u0435 \u0454 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043D\u043E\u044E \u0444\u043E\u0440\u043C\u0430\u043B\u044C\u043D\u043E\u0457 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438, \u0446\u0456 \u043F\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043D\u043D\u044F \u043F\u043E\u0447\u0430\u043B\u0438 \u0432\u0456\u0434\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043E \u0444\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0456\u0457 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438 \u0430\u0431\u043E \u0444\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0441\u044C\u043A\u043E\u0457 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438."@uk . . "\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u54F2\u5B66"@ja . . . . . . . . "La philosophie de la logique est une partie de la philosophie des sciences qui s'int\u00E9resse \u00E0 l\u2019ensemble des probl\u00E8mes th\u00E9oriques qui rel\u00E8vent traditionnellement de la logique, comportant essentiellement la question de son essence, son histoire depuis son origine aristot\u00E9licienne et \u00E0 l'int\u00E9rieur de la question philosophique, de l'extension de son domaine et de ses limites, aux c\u00F4t\u00E9s de la philosophie du langage, de la philosophie des sciences, du psychologisme et des math\u00E9matiques."@fr . . . . . . . "Filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica"@es . . . . . . . . . "\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642"@ar . "\u0424\u0438\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0438\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u043A\u0438"@ru . . . "Filosofia da L\u00F3gica"@pt . . . "\u0424\u0438\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0438\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u043A\u0438 \u2014 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043B \u0444\u0438\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0438\u0438, \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0430\u044E\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043C\u0435\u0442, \u0444\u0443\u043D\u043A\u0446\u0438\u043E\u043D\u0430\u043B\u044C\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u044C \u0438 \u043C\u0435\u0442\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u044E \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u043A\u0438 \u043A\u0430\u043A \u043E\u0431\u0449\u0435\u043C\u0435\u0442\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043A\u043E\u0439 \u043A\u043E\u043D\u0446\u0435\u043F\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043D\u0430\u0443\u043A\u0438. \u0424\u0438\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0438\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u043A\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043B\u0435\u0434\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043F\u0440\u043E\u0431\u043B\u0435\u043C\u0443 \u043D\u0430\u043B\u0438\u0447\u0438\u044F \u0438 \u0441\u043E\u0432\u043C\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u0432 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u043A\u0435 \u043E\u043D\u0442\u043E\u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043A\u0438\u0445 \u0438 \u043A\u043E\u0433\u043D\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043E\u0441\u043D\u043E\u0432\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0439, \u043F\u0440\u043E\u0431\u043B\u0435\u043C\u0443 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043B\u044C\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438\u043B\u0438 \u0444\u0438\u043A\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043A\u043E\u0433\u043E \u0441\u043B\u0435\u0434\u043E\u0432\u0430\u043D\u0438\u044F (\u0438\u043C\u043F\u043B\u0438\u043A\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438, ), \u043E\u0431\u044A\u0451\u043C\u0430 \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044F\u044E\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0443\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u043E\u0431\u044A\u044F\u0432\u043B\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0439 (\u0434\u0435\u043A\u043B\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0439), \u0441\u043E\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u043D\u0438\u044F \u043A\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0433\u043E\u0440\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043D\u0430 \u0438 \u043B\u043E\u0436\u044C. \u0421\u043E\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043C\u0435\u043D\u043D\u0430\u044F \u0444\u0438\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0438\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u043A\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043F\u0440\u043E\u0431\u043B\u0435\u043C\u044B \u0433\u0440\u0430\u043D\u0443\u043B\u0438\u0440\u043E\u0432\u0430\u043D\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043C\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0438 \u043D\u0430\u043B\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0435\u043C\u044B\u0445 \u043F\u0440\u043E\u0435\u043A\u0446\u0438\u0439, \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043C\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043A\u043E\u0433\u043E \u043F\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043E\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u043E\u0442 \u0431\u0430\u0437\u044B \u0441\u043E\u043E\u0442\u043D\u0435\u0441\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F, \u0432\u044B\u0434\u0435\u043B\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u043D\u0435\u043A\u043E\u0442\u043E\u0440\u043E\u0439 \u0443\u0441\u043B\u043E\u0432\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043C\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u043A\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u00AB\u0442\u0432\u043E\u0440\u0446\u0430 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043D\u044B\u00BB (\u0430\u043D\u0433\u043B. truth-maker) \u0438 \u0442. \u043F."@ru . "\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u54F2\u5B66\uFF08\u308D\u3093\u308A\u304C\u304F\u306E\u3066\u3064\u304C\u304F\u3001\u82F1\u8A9E\uFF1Aphilosophy of logic\uFF09\u306F\u3001\u54F2\u5B66\u306E\u4E00\u9818\u57DF\u3067\u3042\u308B\u3002\u305D\u308C\u306F\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u5730\u4F4D\u3084\u65B9\u6CD5\u8AD6\u306B\u3064\u3044\u3066\u306E\u30E1\u30BF\u5B66\u554F\u3067\u3042\u308B\u3002\u8AD6\u7406\u54F2\u5B66\u3068\u3082\u3002 \u8AD6\u7406\u5B66\u306E\u54F2\u5B66\u306F\u3001\u54F2\u5B66\u7684\u554F\u984C\u306B\u5F62\u5F0F\u7684\u8AD6\u7406\u7684\u6280\u8853\u3092\u5FDC\u7528\u3059\u308B\u54F2\u5B66\u7684\u8AD6\u7406\u5B66 (philosophical logic, philosophical logics) \u3068\u6DF7\u540C\u3055\u308C\u308B\u3002"@ja . . "Filosofia da l\u00F3gica \u00E9 a \u00E1rea da filosofia que estuda o alcance e a natureza da l\u00F3gica. Investiga os problemas filos\u00F3ficos levantados pela l\u00F3gica, como os pressupostos muitas vezes implicitamente agindo nas teorias da l\u00F3gica e em sua aplica\u00E7\u00E3o. Isto envolve quest\u00F5es sobre como a l\u00F3gica deve ser definida e como diferentes sistemas l\u00F3gicos se relacionam entre si. Inclui o estudo da natureza dos conceitos fundamentais usados pela l\u00F3gica e a rela\u00E7\u00E3o da l\u00F3gica com outras disciplinas. De acordo com uma caracteriza\u00E7\u00E3o comum, a l\u00F3gica filos\u00F3fica \u00E9 a parte da filosofia da l\u00F3gica que estuda a aplica\u00E7\u00E3o de m\u00E9todos l\u00F3gicos a problemas filos\u00F3ficos, muitas vezes na forma de sistemas l\u00F3gicos estendidos como a l\u00F3gica modal. Mas outros te\u00F3ricos estabelecem a distin\u00E7\u00E3o entre a filosofia da l\u00F3gica e a l\u00F3gica filos\u00F3fica de forma diferente ou n\u00E3o a estabelecem de forma alguma. A metal\u00F3gica est\u00E1 intimamente relacionada \u00E0 filosofia da l\u00F3gica como a disciplina que investiga as propriedades dos sistemas l\u00F3gicos formais, como a consist\u00EAncia e a completude. V\u00E1rias caracteriza\u00E7\u00F5es da s\u00E3o encontradas na literatura acad\u00EAmica. A l\u00F3gica \u00E9 muitas vezes vista como o estudo das leis do pensamento, racioc\u00EDnio correto, infer\u00EAncia v\u00E1lida ou verdade l\u00F3gica. \u00C9 uma ci\u00EAncia formal que investiga como as conclus\u00F5es decorrem das premissas de uma forma neutra ao tema, ou seja, independente do assunto espec\u00EDfico discutido. Uma forma de investigar a natureza da l\u00F3gica concentra-se nas semelhan\u00E7as entre v\u00E1rios sistemas formais l\u00F3gicos e em como eles diferem dos sistemas formais n\u00E3o l\u00F3gicos. Considera\u00E7\u00F5es importantes a este respeito s\u00E3o se o sistema formal em quest\u00E3o \u00E9 compat\u00EDvel com as intui\u00E7\u00F5es l\u00F3gicas fundamentais e se \u00E9 completo. Diferentes concep\u00E7\u00F5es da l\u00F3gica podem ser distinguidas de acordo com se definem a l\u00F3gica como o estudo da infer\u00EAncia v\u00E1lida ou da verdade l\u00F3gica. Outra distin\u00E7\u00E3o entre as concep\u00E7\u00F5es da l\u00F3gica \u00E9 baseada em se os crit\u00E9rios de infer\u00EAncia v\u00E1lida e verdade l\u00F3gica s\u00E3o especificados em termos de sintaxe ou sem\u00E2ntica. Diferentes s\u00E3o frequentemente distinguidos. A l\u00F3gica \u00E9 geralmente entendida como l\u00F3gica formal e \u00E9 tratada como tal na maior parte deste artigo. A l\u00F3gica formal est\u00E1 interessada apenas na forma dos argumentos, expressos em uma linguagem formal, e se concentra em infer\u00EAncias dedutivas. A l\u00F3gica informal, por outro lado, aborda uma gama muito mais ampla de argumentos encontrados tamb\u00E9m em linguagem natural, que incluem argumentos n\u00E3o dedutivos. A corre\u00E7\u00E3o dos argumentos pode depender de outros fatores al\u00E9m de sua forma, como seu conte\u00FAdo ou seu contexto. V\u00E1rios sistemas formais l\u00F3gicos, ou l\u00F3gicas, foram desenvolvidos no s\u00E9culo XX e a tarefa da filosofia da l\u00F3gica \u00E9 classific\u00E1-los, mostrar como se relacionam entre si e abordar o problema de como pode haver uma multiplicidade de l\u00F3gicas em contraste com uma l\u00F3gica universalmente verdadeira. Estas l\u00F3gicas podem ser divididas em l\u00F3gica cl\u00E1ssica, geralmente identificada com a l\u00F3gica de primeira ordem, l\u00F3gicas estendidas e l\u00F3gicas desviantes. As l\u00F3gicas estendidas aceitam o formalismo b\u00E1sico e os axiomas da l\u00F3gica cl\u00E1ssica, mas os estendem com um novo vocabul\u00E1rio l\u00F3gico. As l\u00F3gicas desviantes, por outro lado, rejeitam certas suposi\u00E7\u00F5es centrais da l\u00F3gica cl\u00E1ssica e, portanto, s\u00E3o incompat\u00EDveis com ela. A filosofia da l\u00F3gica tamb\u00E9m investiga a natureza e as implica\u00E7\u00F5es filos\u00F3ficas dos . Isto inclui o problema da verdade, especialmente da verdade l\u00F3gica, que pode ser definida como verdade dependendo apenas dos significados dos termos l\u00F3gicos usados. Outra quest\u00E3o diz respeito \u00E0 natureza das premissas e conclus\u00F5es, ou seja, se devemos entend\u00EA-las como pensamentos, proposi\u00E7\u00F5es ou senten\u00E7as, e como elas s\u00E3o compostas por constituintes mais simples. Juntas, as premissas e uma conclus\u00E3o constituem uma infer\u00EAncia, que pode ser ou dedutiva ou ampliativa, dependendo se \u00E9 necessariamente preservadora da verdade ou introduz informa\u00E7\u00F5es novas e possivelmente falsas. Uma preocupa\u00E7\u00E3o central na l\u00F3gica \u00E9 se uma infer\u00EAncia dedutiva \u00E9 v\u00E1lida ou n\u00E3o. A validade \u00E9 frequentemente definida em termos de necessidade, ou seja, uma infer\u00EAncia \u00E9 v\u00E1lida se e somente se for imposs\u00EDvel que as premissas sejam verdadeiras e a conclus\u00E3o seja falsa. Infer\u00EAncias e argumentos incorretos, por outro lado, n\u00E3o suportam sua conclus\u00E3o. Podem ser categorizados como fal\u00E1cias formais ou informais, dependendo se pertencem \u00E0 l\u00F3gica formal ou informal. A l\u00F3gica tem se preocupado principalmente com regras definit\u00F3rias, ou seja, com a quest\u00E3o de quais regras de infer\u00EAncia determinam se um argumento \u00E9 v\u00E1lido ou n\u00E3o. Um tema separado de investiga\u00E7\u00E3o diz respeito \u00E0s regras estrat\u00E9gicas da l\u00F3gica: as regras que governam como chegar a uma conclus\u00E3o pretendida dado um certo conjunto de premissas, ou seja, quais infer\u00EAncias precisam ser tiradas para chegar l\u00E1. A se preocupa com o estado metaf\u00EDsico das leis e objetos da l\u00F3gica. Uma disputa importante neste campo \u00E9 entre realistas, que sustentam que a l\u00F3gica \u00E9 baseada em fatos que t\u00EAm exist\u00EAncia independente da mente, e antirrealistas como os convencionalistas, que sustentam que as leis da l\u00F3gica s\u00E3o baseadas nas conven\u00E7\u00F5es que governam o uso da linguagem. A l\u00F3gica est\u00E1 intimamente relacionada com . Uma quest\u00E3o central em rela\u00E7\u00E3o \u00E0 ontologia diz respeito aos compromissos ontol\u00F3gicos associados ao uso da l\u00F3gica, por exemplo, com termos singulares e quantificadores existenciais. Uma quest\u00E3o importante na matem\u00E1tica \u00E9 se todas as verdades matem\u00E1ticas podem ser fundamentadas nos axiomas da l\u00F3gica juntamente com a teoria dos conjuntos. Outros campos relacionados incluem a ci\u00EAncia da computa\u00E7\u00E3o e a psicologia."@pt . . . . . . . . . . . "Philosophie der Logik"@de . . . . . . "\u0424\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0456\u044F \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0438"@uk . . . . . . . "Philosophy of logic is the area of philosophy that studies the scope and nature of logic. It investigates the philosophical problems raised by logic, such as the presuppositions often implicitly at work in theories of logic and in their application. This involves questions about how logic is to be defined and how different logical systems are connected to each other. It includes the study of the nature of the fundamental concepts used by logic and the relation of logic to other disciplines. According to a common characterization, philosophical logic is the part of the philosophy of logic that studies the application of logical methods to philosophical problems, often in the form of extended logical systems like modal logic. But other theorists draw the distinction between the philosophy of"@en . . . . . . . . . . . "Filosofia da l\u00F3gica \u00E9 a \u00E1rea da filosofia que estuda o alcance e a natureza da l\u00F3gica. Investiga os problemas filos\u00F3ficos levantados pela l\u00F3gica, como os pressupostos muitas vezes implicitamente agindo nas teorias da l\u00F3gica e em sua aplica\u00E7\u00E3o. Isto envolve quest\u00F5es sobre como a l\u00F3gica deve ser definida e como diferentes sistemas l\u00F3gicos se relacionam entre si. Inclui o estudo da natureza dos conceitos fundamentais usados pela l\u00F3gica e a rela\u00E7\u00E3o da l\u00F3gica com outras disciplinas. De acordo com uma caracteriza\u00E7\u00E3o comum, a l\u00F3gica filos\u00F3fica \u00E9 a parte da filosofia da l\u00F3gica que estuda a aplica\u00E7\u00E3o de m\u00E9todos l\u00F3gicos a problemas filos\u00F3ficos, muitas vezes na forma de sistemas l\u00F3gicos estendidos como a l\u00F3gica modal. Mas outros te\u00F3ricos estabelecem a distin\u00E7\u00E3o entre a filosofia da l\u00F3gica e a l\u00F3gica "@pt . . . . . . . . . . "La filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica es el \u00E1rea de la filosof\u00EDa que estudia el alcance y la naturaleza de la l\u00F3gica. Investiga los problemas filos\u00F3ficos planteados por la l\u00F3gica, como las presuposiciones que a menudo act\u00FAan impl\u00EDcitamente en las teor\u00EDas de la l\u00F3gica y en su aplicaci\u00F3n. Esto implica preguntas sobre c\u00F3mo debe definirse la l\u00F3gica y c\u00F3mo se relacionan los diferentes sistemas l\u00F3gicos entre s\u00ED. Incluye el estudio de la naturaleza de los conceptos fundamentales usados por la l\u00F3gica y la relaci\u00F3n de la l\u00F3gica con otras disciplinas. Seg\u00FAn una caracterizaci\u00F3n com\u00FAn, la l\u00F3gica filos\u00F3fica es la parte de la filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica que estudia la aplicaci\u00F3n de m\u00E9todos l\u00F3gicos a problemas filos\u00F3ficos, a menudo en forma de sistemas l\u00F3gicos extendidos como la l\u00F3gica modal. Pero otros te\u00F3ricos establec"@es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "La philosophie de la logique est une partie de la philosophie des sciences qui s'int\u00E9resse \u00E0 l\u2019ensemble des probl\u00E8mes th\u00E9oriques qui rel\u00E8vent traditionnellement de la logique, comportant essentiellement la question de son essence, son histoire depuis son origine aristot\u00E9licienne et \u00E0 l'int\u00E9rieur de la question philosophique, de l'extension de son domaine et de ses limites, aux c\u00F4t\u00E9s de la philosophie du langage, de la philosophie des sciences, du psychologisme et des math\u00E9matiques."@fr . . . "98279"^^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Die Philosophie der Logik ist der Zweig der Philosophie, der sich mit dem Geltungsbereich und der Natur der Logik befasst. Sie untersucht die philosophischen Probleme, die durch die Logik aufgeworfen werden, wie die Vorannahmen, die oft implizit in Theorien der Logik und in ihren Anwendungen beteiligt sind. Dabei geht es um Fragen, wie Logik zu definieren ist und wie sich verschiedene logische Systeme zueinander verhalten. Dazu geh\u00F6rt auch die Untersuchung der Natur der grundlegenden Begriffe, die von der Logik verwendet werden, und der Beziehung der Logik zu anderen Disziplinen. Nach einer g\u00E4ngigen Charakterisierung ist die philosophische Logik der Teil der Philosophie der Logik, der die Anwendung logischer Methoden auf philosophische Probleme untersucht, oft in Form erweiterter logischer Systeme wie der Modallogik. Andere Theoretiker ziehen die Unterscheidung zwischen der Philosophie der Logik und der philosophischen Logik jedoch anders oder gar nicht. Die Metalogik ist als Disziplin eng mit der Philosophie der Logik verwandt, da sie die Eigenschaften formaler logischer Systeme, wie Konsistenz und Vollst\u00E4ndigkeit, untersucht. In der wissenschaftlichen Literatur finden sich verschiedene Charakterisierungen der . Logik wird oft als das Studium der Denkgesetze, des korrekten Denkens, der g\u00FCltigen Schlussfolgerung oder der angesehen. Sie ist eine formale Wissenschaft, die untersucht, wie Konklusionen aus Pr\u00E4missen auf themenneutrale Weise folgen, d. h. unabh\u00E4ngig von dem spezifischen Gegenstand, der besprochen wird. Eine Form der Untersuchung der Natur der Logik konzentriert sich auf die Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen verschiedenen logischen formalen Systemen und darauf, wie sie sich von nicht-logischen formalen Systemen unterscheiden. Wichtige \u00DCberlegungen in diesem Zusammenhang sind, ob das betreffende formale System mit grundlegenden logischen Intuitionen vereinbar ist und ob es vollst\u00E4ndig ist. Verschiedene Konzeptualisierungen der Logik lassen sich danach unterscheiden, ob sie die Logik als das Studium von g\u00FCltigen Schlussfolgerungen oder von logischen Wahrheiten definieren. Eine weitere Unterscheidung zwischen den Logikbegriffen beruht darauf, ob die Kriterien des g\u00FCltigen Schlussfolgerns und der logischen Wahrheit in Bezug auf die Syntax oder die Semantik spezifiziert werden. Oft werden verschiedene unterschieden. Logik wird in der Regel als formale Logik verstanden und wird in diesem Artikel gr\u00F6\u00DFtenteils auch als solche behandelt. Die formale Logik interessiert sich nur f\u00FCr die Form von Argumenten, die in einer formalen Sprache ausgedr\u00FCckt werden, und konzentriert sich auf deduktive Schlussfolgerungen. Die informale Logik hingegen befasst sich mit einem viel breiteren Spektrum von Argumenten, die auch in der nat\u00FCrlichen Sprache vorkommen, einschlie\u00DFlich nicht-deduktiver Argumente. Die Korrektheit von Argumenten kann von anderen Faktoren als ihrer Form abh\u00E4ngen, etwa von ihrem Inhalt oder ihrem Kontext. Im 20. Jahrhundert wurden verschiedene logische formale Systeme oder Logiken entwickelt, und es ist die Aufgabe der Philosophie der Logik, sie zu klassifizieren, ihre Beziehungen zueinander aufzuzeigen und sich mit dem Problem zu befassen, wie es eine Vielzahl von Logiken im Gegensatz zu einer universell wahren Logik geben kann. Diese Logiken k\u00F6nnen unterteilt werden in klassische Logik, die in der Regel mit der Logik erster Stufe identifiziert wird, erweiterte Logiken und abweichende Logiken. Erweiterte Logiken \u00FCbernehmen den grundlegenden Formalismus und die Axiome der klassischen Logik, erweitern sie jedoch mit neuen logischen Vokabeln. Abweichende Logiken hingegen lehnen bestimmte Kernannahmen der klassischen Logik ab und sind daher nicht mit ihr kompatibel. Die Philosophie der Logik untersucht auch die Natur und die philosophischen Implikationen der . Dies schlie\u00DFt das Problem der Wahrheit ein, insbesondere der logischen Wahrheit, welche als Wahrheit definiert werden kann, die nur von den Bedeutungen der verwendeten logischen Begriffe abh\u00E4ngt. Eine weitere Frage betrifft die Natur von Pr\u00E4missen und Konklusionen, d. h. ob sie als Gedanken, Propositionen oder S\u00E4tze zu verstehen sind und wie sie aus einfacheren Bestandteilen zusammengesetzt sind. Pr\u00E4missen und eine Konklusion bilden zusammen eine Schlussfolgerung, die entweder deduktiv oder ampliativ sein kann, je nachdem, ob sie notwendigerweise wahrheitserhaltend ist oder neue und m\u00F6glicherweise falsche Informationen einf\u00FChrt. Ein zentrales Anliegen der Logik ist die Frage, ob eine deduktive Schlussfolgerung g\u00FCltig ist oder nicht. G\u00FCltigkeit wird oft in Bezug auf Notwendigkeit definiert, d. h. eine Schlussfolgerung ist nur dann g\u00FCltig, wenn es unm\u00F6glich ist, dass die Pr\u00E4missen wahr und die Konklusion falsch ist. Falsche Schlussfolgerungen und Argumente hingegen k\u00F6nnen ihre Konklusion nicht st\u00FCtzen. Sie k\u00F6nnen als formale oder informale Fehlschl\u00FCsse kategorisiert werden, je nachdem, ob sie zur formalen oder informalen Logik geh\u00F6ren. Die Logik besch\u00E4ftigt sich meist mit definitorischen Regeln, also mit der Frage, welche Schlussregeln bestimmen, ob ein Argument g\u00FCltig ist oder nicht. Ein gesondertes Forschungsthema betrifft die strategischen Regeln der Logik: die Regeln, die bestimmen, wie man von gewissen Pr\u00E4missen ausgehend zu einer beabsichtigten Konklusion kommt, d. h. welche Schlussfolgerungen gezogen werden m\u00FCssen, um dorthin zu gelangen. Die befasst sich mit dem metaphysischen Status der Gesetze und Gegenst\u00E4nde der Logik. Ein wichtiger Streitpunkt in diesem Bereich besteht zwischen Realisten, die der Meinung sind, dass die Logik auf Tatsachen mit geistesunabh\u00E4ngiger Existenz basiert, und Antirealisten wie den Konventionalisten, die der Meinung sind, dass die Gesetze der Logik auf den Konventionen des Sprachgebrauchs beruhen. Die Logik ist eng mit verbunden. Eine zentrale Frage in Bezug auf die Ontologie betrifft die ontologischen Verpflichtungen, die mit der Verwendung der Logik verbunden sind, beispielsweise mit singul\u00E4ren Termen und Existenzquantoren. Eine wichtige Frage in der Mathematik ist, ob alle mathematischen Wahrheiten in den Axiomen der Logik zusammen mit der Mengenlehre begr\u00FCndet werden k\u00F6nnen. Weitere verwandte Gebiete sind die Informatik und die Psychologie."@de . . 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"La filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica es el \u00E1rea de la filosof\u00EDa que estudia el alcance y la naturaleza de la l\u00F3gica. Investiga los problemas filos\u00F3ficos planteados por la l\u00F3gica, como las presuposiciones que a menudo act\u00FAan impl\u00EDcitamente en las teor\u00EDas de la l\u00F3gica y en su aplicaci\u00F3n. Esto implica preguntas sobre c\u00F3mo debe definirse la l\u00F3gica y c\u00F3mo se relacionan los diferentes sistemas l\u00F3gicos entre s\u00ED. Incluye el estudio de la naturaleza de los conceptos fundamentales usados por la l\u00F3gica y la relaci\u00F3n de la l\u00F3gica con otras disciplinas. Seg\u00FAn una caracterizaci\u00F3n com\u00FAn, la l\u00F3gica filos\u00F3fica es la parte de la filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica que estudia la aplicaci\u00F3n de m\u00E9todos l\u00F3gicos a problemas filos\u00F3ficos, a menudo en forma de sistemas l\u00F3gicos extendidos como la l\u00F3gica modal. Pero otros te\u00F3ricos establecen la distinci\u00F3n entre la filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica y la l\u00F3gica filos\u00F3fica de manera diferente o no la establecen en absoluto. La metal\u00F3gica est\u00E1 estrechamente relacionada con la filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica como la disciplina que investiga las propiedades de los sistemas l\u00F3gicos formales, como la consistencia y la completitud. En la literatura acad\u00E9mica se encuentran varias caracterizaciones de la . La l\u00F3gica a menudo se ve como el estudio de las leyes del pensamiento, el razonamiento correcto, la inferencia v\u00E1lida o la verdad l\u00F3gica. Es una ciencia formal que investiga c\u00F3mo las conclusiones se derivan de las premisas de una manera neutral al tema, es decir, independientemente del asunto espec\u00EDfico discutido. Una forma de investigar la naturaleza de la l\u00F3gica se centra en los puntos comunes entre los distintos sistemas formales l\u00F3gicos y en c\u00F3mo difieren de los sistemas formales no l\u00F3gicos. Consideraciones importantes a este respecto son si el sistema formal en cuesti\u00F3n es compatible con las intuiciones l\u00F3gicas fundamentales y si es completo. Las diferentes concepciones de la l\u00F3gica pueden distinguirse en funci\u00F3n de si definen la l\u00F3gica como el estudio de la inferencia v\u00E1lida o de la verdad l\u00F3gica. Otra distinci\u00F3n entre las concepciones de la l\u00F3gica se basa en si los criterios de inferencia v\u00E1lida y de verdad l\u00F3gica se especifican en t\u00E9rminos de sintaxis o de sem\u00E1ntica. A menudo se distinguen diferentes . La l\u00F3gica suele entenderse como l\u00F3gica formal y se trata como tal en la mayor parte de este art\u00EDculo. La l\u00F3gica formal solo se interesa por la forma de los argumentos, expresados en un lenguaje formal, y se centra en las inferencias deductivas. La l\u00F3gica informal, por otro lado, aborda una gama mucho m\u00E1s amplia de argumentos que tambi\u00E9n se encuentran en el lenguaje natural, y que incluyen argumentos no deductivos. La correcci\u00F3n de los argumentos puede depender de otros factores adem\u00E1s de su forma, como su contenido o su contexto. En el siglo XX se han desarrollado varios sistemas formales l\u00F3gicos, las llamadas \"l\u00F3gicas\", y la tarea de la filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica es clasificarlos, mostrar c\u00F3mo se relacionan entre s\u00ED y abordar el problema de c\u00F3mo puede haber una multitud de l\u00F3gicas en contraste con una l\u00F3gica universalmente verdadera. Estas l\u00F3gicas pueden dividirse en la l\u00F3gica cl\u00E1sica, normalmente identificada con la l\u00F3gica de primer orden, l\u00F3gicas extendidas y l\u00F3gicas desviadas. Las l\u00F3gicas extendidas aceptan el formalismo b\u00E1sico y los axiomas de la l\u00F3gica cl\u00E1sica, pero los extienden con un nuevo vocabulario l\u00F3gico. Las l\u00F3gicas desviadas, por otro lado, rechazan ciertos supuestos b\u00E1sicos de la l\u00F3gica cl\u00E1sica y, por lo tanto, son incompatibles con ella. La filosof\u00EDa de la l\u00F3gica tambi\u00E9n investiga la naturaleza y las implicaciones filos\u00F3ficas de los . Esto incluye el problema de la verdad, especialmente de la verdad l\u00F3gica, que puede definirse como verdad dependiendo solo de los significados de los t\u00E9rminos l\u00F3gicos utilizados. Otra cuesti\u00F3n se refiere a la naturaleza de las premisas y conclusiones, es decir, si deben entenderlas como pensamientos, proposiciones u oraciones, y c\u00F3mo se componen de constituyentes m\u00E1s simples. Juntas, las premisas y la conclusi\u00F3n constituyen una inferencia, que puede ser o deductiva o ampliativa, dependiendo de si preserva necesariamente la verdad o introduce informaci\u00F3n nueva y posiblemente falsa. Una preocupaci\u00F3n central en la l\u00F3gica es si una inferencia deductiva es v\u00E1lida o no. La validez se define a menudo en t\u00E9rminos de necesidad, es decir, una inferencia es v\u00E1lida si y solo si es imposible que las premisas sean verdaderas y la conclusi\u00F3n falsa. Las inferencias y los argumentos incorrectos, por otro lado, no respaldan su conclusi\u00F3n. Pueden clasificarse como falacias formales o informales, dependiendo de si pertenecen a la l\u00F3gica formal o informal. La l\u00F3gica se ha ocupado principalmente de las reglas definitorias, es decir, de la cuesti\u00F3n de qu\u00E9 reglas de inferencia determinan si un argumento es v\u00E1lido o no. Un tema de investigaci\u00F3n separado se refiere a las reglas estrat\u00E9gicas de la l\u00F3gica: las reglas que gobiernan c\u00F3mo llegar a una conclusi\u00F3n prevista dado un cierto conjunto de premisas, es decir, qu\u00E9 inferencias hay que hacer para llegar a ella. La se ocupa del estado metaf\u00EDsico de las leyes y los objetos de la l\u00F3gica. Una disputa importante en este campo es entre los realistas, que sostienen que la l\u00F3gica se basa en hechos que tienen una existencia independiente de la mente, y los antirrealistas como los convencionalistas, que sostienen que las leyes de la l\u00F3gica se basan en las convenciones que rigen el uso del lenguaje. La l\u00F3gica est\u00E1 estrechamente relacionada con . Una cuesti\u00F3n central con respecto a la ontolog\u00EDa se refiere a los compromisos ontol\u00F3gicos asociados con el uso de la l\u00F3gica, por ejemplo, con los t\u00E9rminos singulares y los cuantificadores existenciales. Una pregunta importante en las matem\u00E1ticas es si todas las verdades matem\u00E1ticas pueden fundamentarse en los axiomas de la l\u00F3gica junto con la teor\u00EDa de conjuntos. Otros campos relacionados incluyen la inform\u00E1tica y la psicolog\u00EDa."@es . . . . . 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"Philosophie de la logique"@fr . . "21368888"^^ . . . . . 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"Die Philosophie der Logik ist der Zweig der Philosophie, der sich mit dem Geltungsbereich und der Natur der Logik befasst. Sie untersucht die philosophischen Probleme, die durch die Logik aufgeworfen werden, wie die Vorannahmen, die oft implizit in Theorien der Logik und in ihren Anwendungen beteiligt sind. Dabei geht es um Fragen, wie Logik zu definieren ist und wie sich verschiedene logische Systeme zueinander verhalten. Dazu geh\u00F6rt auch die Untersuchung der Natur der grundlegenden Begriffe, die von der Logik verwendet werden, und der Beziehung der Logik zu anderen Disziplinen. Nach einer g\u00E4ngigen Charakterisierung ist die philosophische Logik der Teil der Philosophie der Logik, der die Anwendung logischer Methoden auf philosophische Probleme untersucht, oft in Form erweiterter logischer"@de . . . . . . . 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\u043A\u0432\u0430\u043D\u0442\u043E\u0440\u0456\u0432, \u0456\u0441\u043D\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043D\u043D\u044F, \u0456\u043C\u043F\u043B\u0456\u043A\u0430\u0446\u0456\u0457, \u043C\u043E\u0434\u0430\u043B\u044C\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0456, \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u0447\u043D\u043E\u0457 \u043D\u0435\u043E\u0431\u0445\u0456\u0434\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0456. \n* \u0424\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0441\u044C\u043A\u0430 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u043A\u0430 \u2014 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043E\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043D\u043D\u044F \u0444\u043E\u0440\u043C\u0430\u043B\u044C\u043D\u0438\u0445 \u043B\u043E\u0433\u0456\u0447\u043D\u0438\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043D\u0456\u043A \u0434\u043E \u0444\u0456\u043B\u043E\u0441\u043E\u0444\u0441\u044C\u043A\u0438\u0445 \u043F\u0440\u043E\u0431\u043B\u0435\u043C."@uk . . . . . . . . "1117233044"^^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .