"1106993282"^^ . . . . "Vi\u00E9s de uso de c\u00F3don (portugu\u00EAs brasileiro) ou cod\u00E3o (portugu\u00EAs europeu) refere-se a diferen\u00E7as na frequ\u00EAncia de ocorr\u00EAncia de c\u00F3dons sin\u00F4nimos na codifica\u00E7\u00E3o de DNA. Um c\u00F3don \u00E9 uma s\u00E9rie de tr\u00EAs nucleot\u00EDdeos (um tripleto) que codifica um amino\u00E1cido res\u00EDduo espec\u00EDfico em uma cadeia de polipept\u00EDdeo ou para a termina\u00E7\u00E3o de transla\u00E7\u00E3o (c\u00F3dons de parada). Existem 64 c\u00F3dons diferentes (61 c\u00F3dons codificando para amino\u00E1cidos mais 3 c\u00F3dons de parada) mas apenas 20 amino\u00E1cidos diferentes traduzidos. A superabund\u00E2ncia no n\u00FAmero de c\u00F3dons permite que muitos amino\u00E1cidos sejam codificados por mais de um c\u00F3don. Por causa de tal redund\u00E2ncia, \u00E9 dito que o c\u00F3digo gen\u00E9tico \u00E9 degenerado. Os c\u00F3digos gen\u00E9ticos de diferentes organismos s\u00E3o frequentemente inclinados a usar um dos v\u00E1rios c\u00F3dons que codificam o mesmo amino\u00E1cido sobre os outros \u2014 isto \u00E9, uma maior frequ\u00EAncia de um ser\u00E1 encontrada do que o esperado por acaso. Como tais vieses surgem \u00E9 uma \u00E1rea muito debatida de evolu\u00E7\u00E3o molecular. Tabelas de uso de c\u00F3dons detalhando o vi\u00E9s de uso de c\u00F3don gen\u00F4mico para a maioria dos organismos em GenBank e pode ser encontrado no HIVE-Codon Usage Table database. \u00C9 geralmente reconhecido que os vieses de c\u00F3don refletem um equil\u00EDbrio entre vieses mutacionais e sele\u00E7\u00E3o natural para otimiza\u00E7\u00E3o translacional. C\u00F3dons \u00F3timos em microrganismos de crescimento r\u00E1pido, como Escherichia coli ou Saccharomyces cerevisiae (fermento de padeiro), reflete a composi\u00E7\u00E3o de seus respectivos pool de tRNA gen\u00F4mico. Acredita-se que os c\u00F3dons ideais ajudam a alcan\u00E7ar taxas de tradu\u00E7\u00E3o mais r\u00E1pidas e alta precis\u00E3o. Como resultado desses fatores, espera-se que a sele\u00E7\u00E3o translacional seja mais forte em genes altamente expressos, como \u00E9 de fato o caso para os organismos acima mencionados. Em outros organismos que n\u00E3o apresentam altas taxas de crescimento ou que apresentam genomas pequenos, a otimiza\u00E7\u00E3o do uso de c\u00F3dons est\u00E1 normalmente ausente, e as prefer\u00EAncias dos c\u00F3dons s\u00E3o determinadas pelos vieses mutacionais caracter\u00EDsticos vistos naquele genoma espec\u00EDfico. Exemplos disso s\u00E3o Homo sapiens (humano) e Helicobacter pylori. Organismos que mostram um n\u00EDvel intermedi\u00E1rio de otimiza\u00E7\u00E3o de uso de c\u00F3dons incluem Drosophila melanogaster (moscas das frutas), Caenorhabditis elegans (verme nemat\u00F3deo), Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (ouri\u00E7o-do-mar) ou Arabidopsis thaliana (uma esp\u00E9cie de agri\u00E3o, primeira planta cujo genoma foi completamente sequenciado). Diversas fam\u00EDlias virais (herpesv\u00EDrus, lentiv\u00EDrus, papilomav\u00EDrus, , adenov\u00EDrus e parvov\u00EDrus) s\u00E3o conhecidos por codificarem prote\u00EDnas estruturais que exibem um uso de c\u00F3dons fortemente enviesados em compara\u00E7\u00E3o com a c\u00E9lula hospedeira. Sugeriu-se de que esses vieses de c\u00F3don desempenham um papel na regula\u00E7\u00E3o temporal de suas prote\u00EDnas tardias. A natureza da otimiza\u00E7\u00E3o do tRNA de uso do c\u00F3don tem sido intensamente debatida. N\u00E3o est\u00E1 claro se as unidades de uso de c\u00F3don conduzem a evolu\u00E7\u00E3o do tRNA ou vice versa. Pelo menos um modelo matem\u00E1tico foi desenvolvido onde tanto o uso de c\u00F3dons quanto a express\u00E3o de tRNA coevoluem numa forma de feedback (i.e., c\u00F3dons j\u00E1 presentes em altas frequ\u00EAncias aumentam a express\u00E3o de seus correspondentes tRNAs, e tRNAs normalmente expressos em altos n\u00EDveis aumentam a frequ\u00EAncia de seus c\u00F3dons correspondentes). No entanto, este modelo n\u00E3o parece ainda ter confirma\u00E7\u00E3o experimental. Outro problema \u00E9 que a evolu\u00E7\u00E3o dos genes de tRNA tem sido uma \u00E1rea de pesquisa muito inativa."@pt . "\u041F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u0301\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u0301\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u2014 \u043F\u043E\u043D\u044F\u0442\u0438\u0435, \u043E\u043F\u0438\u0441\u044B\u0432\u0430\u044E\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u044F\u0432\u043B\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043D\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043E\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0435\u043C\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043D\u043E\u043D\u0438\u043C\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u0432 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044E\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043E\u0431\u043B\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044F\u0445 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u0430. \u0412 \u0446\u0435\u043B\u043E\u043C \u0433\u0435\u043D\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043A\u0438\u0439 \u043A\u043E\u0434 \u043A\u043E\u043D\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043D \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u043E\u0432. \u041E\u0434\u043D\u0430\u043A\u043E \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u044C\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044F \u043C\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u0430\u043C\u0438: \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u044B\u0431\u043E\u0440 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044B\u0445 \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u043A\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043D\u043E\u043D\u0438\u043C\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043B\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043D. \u0412 \u0442\u043E \u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043C\u044F \u044D\u0442\u043E\u0442 \u0432\u044B\u0431\u043E\u0440 \u0431\u043E\u043B\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u043B\u0438 \u043C\u0435\u043D\u0435\u0435 \u043F\u043E\u0441\u0442\u043E\u044F\u043D\u0435\u043D \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u0430\u0445 \u043E\u0434\u043D\u043E\u0433\u043E \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u0430. \u0413\u0438\u043F\u043E\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0430 \u043E \u0442\u043E\u043C, \u0447\u0442\u043E \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043B\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0435 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u044B \u0438\u043C\u0435\u044E\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043B\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0435 \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F, \u043F\u043E\u043B\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043B\u0430 \u043D\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u043D\u043E\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u043F\u043E\u0442\u0435\u0437\u044B \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432."@ru . "Biais d'usage du code"@fr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "\uCF54\uB3C8 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5(\uC601\uC5B4: Codon usage bias)\uC740 DNA \uCF54\uB529\uC5D0\uC11C \uB3D9\uB958 \uCF54\uB3C8\uC758 \uBC1C\uC0DD \uBE48\uB3C4 \uCC28\uC774\uB97C \uC758\uBBF8\uD55C\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8\uC740 \uD3F4\uB9AC\uD3A9\uD2F0\uB4DC \uC5F0\uC1C4\uCCB4(DNA \uBC1C\uD604\uC73C\uB85C \uC778\uD574 \uC0DD\uC131\uB418\uB294 \uB2E8\uBC31\uC9C8)\uC758 \uD2B9\uC815 \uC544\uBBF8\uB178\uC0B0 \uC794\uAE30(residue)\uB97C \uC554\uD638\uD654\uD558\uB294 3\uAC1C\uC758 \uB274\uD074\uB808\uC624\uD0C0\uC774\uB4DC\uB97C \uC758\uBBF8\uD55C\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8\uC740 64 \uC885\uB958(61\uAC1C\uC758 \uCF54\uB3C8\uACFC 3\uAC1C\uC758 \uC885\uACB0 \uCF54\uB3C8)\uAC00 \uC874\uC7AC\uD558\uC9C0\uB9CC, \uADF8\uAC83\uC774 \uC9C0\uC815\uD558\uB294 \uC544\uBBF8\uB178\uC0B0\uC740 20\uAC00\uC9C0\uC5D0 \uBD88\uACFC\uD558\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC740 \uC5EC\uAE30\uC11C \uCF54\uB3C8\uC758 \uC885\uB958\uB294 \uB2E4\uB974\uB098, \uACB0\uACFC\uC801\uC73C\uB85C\uB294 \uAC19\uC740 \uC544\uBBF8\uB178\uC0B0\uC744 \uC9C0\uC815\uD558\uB294 \uC885\uB958\uC758 \uCF54\uB3C8\uC774 \uD2B9\uC815 \uBD80\uC704\uC5D0\uC11C \uACFC\uBC00\uD558\uAC8C \uBD84\uD3EC\uB418\uB294 \uD604\uC0C1\uC744 \uC758\uBBF8\uD55C\uB2E4. \uC774\uB7EC\uD55C \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5 \uD604\uC0C1\uC740 \uC9C4\uD654 \uACFC\uC815\uC5D0\uC11C \uC720\uC758\uD55C \uC758\uBBF8\uB97C \uC9C0\uB2CC\uB2E4\uB294 \uAC83\uC774 HIVE-Codon Usage Tables (HIVE-CUTs)\uC640 \uAC19\uC740 \uC720\uC804\uD559\uACC4\uC758 \uC5EC\uB7EC \uD504\uB85C\uC81D\uD2B8\uC5D0\uC11C \uC99D\uBA85\uB418\uC5C8\uB2E4. \uD2B9\uD788, CoCoPUTs\uC640 TissueCoCoPUTs\uC640 \uAC19\uC740 \uD504\uB85C\uC81D\uD2B8\uC5D0\uC11C \uC0B0\uCD9C\uD55C \uB370\uC774\uD130\uC5D0\uC11C\uB294 \uBC1C\uD604 \uAC00\uB2A5\uD55C \uC11C\uC5F4 \uC815\uBCF4 52\uAC1C\uB97C \uAE30\uC900\uC73C\uB85C \uC774\uAC83\uB4E4\uC758 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC744 \uD1B5\uACC4\uD654\uD558\uC600\uB2E4."@ko . . . . . . . "219277"^^ . "\u041F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432"@ru . . . . . "Codonverwendung"@de . . . . . . . . . "Codon usage bias refers to differences in the frequency of occurrence of synonymous codons in coding DNA. A codon is a series of three nucleotides (a triplet) that encodes a specific amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain or for the termination of translation (stop codons)."@en . . . . . . . . "\u041F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u0301\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u0301\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u2014 \u043F\u043E\u043D\u044F\u0442\u0438\u0435, \u043E\u043F\u0438\u0441\u044B\u0432\u0430\u044E\u0449\u0435\u0435 \u044F\u0432\u043B\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043D\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043E\u0442 \u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0447\u0430\u0435\u043C\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0441\u0438\u043D\u043E\u043D\u0438\u043C\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u0432 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u0438\u0440\u0443\u044E\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u043E\u0431\u043B\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044F\u0445 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u0430. \u0412 \u0446\u0435\u043B\u043E\u043C \u0433\u0435\u043D\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043A\u0438\u0439 \u043A\u043E\u0434 \u043A\u043E\u043D\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0435\u043D \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u043E\u0432. \u041E\u0434\u043D\u0430\u043A\u043E \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u044C\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044F \u043C\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u0430\u043C\u0438: \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u044B\u0431\u043E\u0440 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044B\u0445 \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u043A\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043D\u043E\u043D\u0438\u043C\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043B\u0438\u0447\u0435\u043D. \u0412 \u0442\u043E \u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0435\u043C\u044F \u044D\u0442\u043E\u0442 \u0432\u044B\u0431\u043E\u0440 \u0431\u043E\u043B\u0435\u0435 \u0438\u043B\u0438 \u043C\u0435\u043D\u0435\u0435 \u043F\u043E\u0441\u0442\u043E\u044F\u043D\u0435\u043D \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u0430\u0445 \u043E\u0434\u043D\u043E\u0433\u043E \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u0430. \u0413\u0438\u043F\u043E\u0442\u0435\u0437\u0430 \u043E \u0442\u043E\u043C, \u0447\u0442\u043E \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043B\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0435 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u044B \u0438\u043C\u0435\u044E\u0442 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043B\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0435 \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F, \u043F\u043E\u043B\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043B\u0430 \u043D\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u043D\u043E\u0439 \u0433\u0438\u043F\u043E\u0442\u0435\u0437\u044B \u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043F\u043E\u0447\u0442\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432. \u041F\u043E \u043C\u0435\u0440\u0435 \u043D\u0430\u043A\u043E\u043F\u043B\u0435\u043D\u0438\u044F \u0434\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043F\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0434\u043B\u044F \u0430\u043D\u0430\u043B\u0438\u0437\u0430 \u043D\u0443\u043A\u043B\u0435\u043E\u0442\u0438\u0434\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043F\u043E\u0441\u043B\u0435\u0434\u043E\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043B\u044C\u043D\u043E\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0437 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u043E\u0432 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043D\u043E\u0432\u0438\u043B\u043E\u0441\u044C \u043F\u043E\u043D\u044F\u0442\u043D\u043E, \u0447\u0442\u043E \u043D\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043D\u043E\u0435 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043F\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043B\u0435\u043D\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u043D\u043E\u043D\u0438\u043C\u0438\u0447\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043A\u043E\u0434\u043E\u043D\u043E\u0432 \u043D\u0430\u0445\u043E\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044F \u043F\u043E\u0434 \u0434\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0438\u0435\u043C \u044D\u0432\u043E\u043B\u044E\u0446\u0438\u043E\u043D\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u043B (\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043D\u043D\u044B\u0439 \u043E\u0442\u0431\u043E\u0440, \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0444 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u0432, \u043C\u0443\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438) \u0438 \u043C\u043E\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u043F\u0440\u043E\u044F\u0432\u043B\u044F\u0442\u044C\u0441\u044F \u043F\u043E-\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u043E\u043C\u0443 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043A\u0430\u0445 \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u0432, \u0433\u0435\u043D\u043E\u043C\u043E\u0432 \u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043D\u044B\u0445 \u043E\u0440\u0433\u0430\u043D\u0438\u0437\u043C\u0430\u0445."@ru . . . . . . "\uCF54\uB3C8 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5"@ko . . . "\u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u0648 \u062A\u062D\u064A\u0632 \u0627\u0633\u062A\u062E\u062F\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 (\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u062C\u0644\u064A\u0632\u064A\u0629: Codon preference)\u200F \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0627\u0641 \u0641\u064A \u062A\u0648\u0627\u062A\u0631 \u0638\u0647\u0648\u0631 \u0641\u064A \u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0645\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645\u060C \u0623\u0648 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0644\u0627\u0633\u062A\u062E\u062F\u0627\u0645 \u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u064A\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0639\u062F\u0629 \u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u062A\u0634\u0641\u0631 \u0646\u0641\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u062D\u0645\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u064A\u0646\u064A. \u0639\u0645\u0648\u0645\u0627\u060C \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064A\u0641\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u064A\u0629 \u0645\u0646\u062D\u0641\u0638\u0629 \u0628\u064A\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0628\u064A\u0646\u0647\u0627\u060C \u0648\u062E\u064A\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062A\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641\u0629 \u0641\u064A \u0627\u0633\u062A\u062E\u062F\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0627\u0644\u062A\u0631\u0627\u062F\u0641\u064A\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062A\u0648\u0627\u062A\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u062F\u0631\u0629. \u0648\u0641\u064A \u0646\u0641\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u062A\u060C \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u062E\u064A\u0627\u0631 \u0644\u064A\u0633 \u062B\u0627\u0628\u062A\u0627 \u062A\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u064A\u0646 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0641\u064A \u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646 \u0628\u062D\u062F \u0630\u0627\u062A\u0647. \u062A\u0633\u0645\u0649 \u0641\u0631\u0636\u064A\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0644\u062F\u064A\u0647\u0627 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644\u0627\u062A \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u062A\u0631\u0627\u062F\u0641\u064A\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u064A\u0646\u0629 \u0628\u0641\u0631\u0636\u064A\u0629 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645\u064A."@ar . . . "El sesgo en el uso de codones se refiere a las diferencias en la frecuencia de ocurrencia de codones sin\u00F3nimos en el ADN codificante. Un cod\u00F3n es una serie de tres nucle\u00F3tidos (un triplete) que codifica para un residuo espec\u00EDfico de amino\u00E1cido en una cadena polipept\u00EDdica o para la terminaci\u00F3n de la traducci\u00F3n (cod\u00F3n de parada)."@es . "El sesgo en el uso de codones se refiere a las diferencias en la frecuencia de ocurrencia de codones sin\u00F3nimos en el ADN codificante. Un cod\u00F3n es una serie de tres nucle\u00F3tidos (un triplete) que codifica para un residuo espec\u00EDfico de amino\u00E1cido en una cadena polipept\u00EDdica o para la terminaci\u00F3n de la traducci\u00F3n (cod\u00F3n de parada). Hay en total 64 distintos codones (61 codones que codifican para amino\u00E1cidos y 3 codones de parada) pero hay solo 20 amino\u00E1cidos distintos. La sobreabundancia en el n\u00FAmero de codones permite que varios amino\u00E1cidos sean codificados por m\u00E1s de un cod\u00F3n. Debido a esta redundancia, se dice que el c\u00F3digo gen\u00E9tico es degenerado. Los c\u00F3digos gen\u00E9ticos de distintos organismos son normalmente sesgados hacia el uso de un particular cod\u00F3n sobre los dem\u00E1s codones que codifican para un mismo amino\u00E1cido, es decir, que un cod\u00F3n se encontrar\u00E1 con una frecuencia m\u00E1s elevada de la que esperar\u00EDamos por probabilidad. C\u00F3mo tales sesgos surgen es una \u00E1rea muy debatida en la evoluci\u00F3n molecular. Tablas de uso de codones detallando el sesgo en el uso de codones para la mayor\u00EDa de genomas de organismos depositados en GenBank y RefSeq se pueden encontrar en la base de datos HIVE-Codon Usage Tableo.\u200B Est\u00E1 generalmente reconocido que el sesgo de codones refleja un equilibrio entre los sesgos mutacionales y la selecci\u00F3n natural en la optimizaci\u00F3n de la traducci\u00F3n. Los codones \u00F3ptimos en organismos de crecimiento r\u00E1pido, como Escherichia coli o Saccharomyces cerevisiae (la levadura del pan), reflejan respectivamente la composici\u00F3n gen\u00F3mica en el conjunto del ARNt.\u200B Se cree que el uso de codones \u00F3ptimos ayuda a conseguir una tasa de traducci\u00F3n m\u00E1s alta y con m\u00E1s exactitud. A ra\u00EDz de estos factores, se espera que la selecci\u00F3n en la traducci\u00F3n sea m\u00E1s fuerte en genes de expresi\u00F3n elevada, como es en el caso de los organismos antes mencionados.\u200B\u200B En otros organismos que no presentan altas tasas de crecimiento o tienen genomas peque\u00F1os, la optimizaci\u00F3n en el uso de codones es normalmente ausente, y las preferencias en el uso del cod\u00F3n est\u00E1n determinadas por el caracter\u00EDstico sesgo mutacional observado en ese particular genoma. Ejemplos de este son Homo sapiens (humano) y Helicobacter pylori. Organismos que presentan un nivel de optimizaci\u00F3n en el uso de codones intermedio, incluye Drosophila melanogaster (mosca de la fruta), Caenorhabditis elegans (gusano nematodo), Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (erizo de mar) o Arabidopsis thaliana.\u200B Se sabe que varias familias virales (herpesvirus, lentivirus, papillomavirus, polyomavirus, adenovirus, y parvovirus), codifican prote\u00EDnas estructurales que presentan un uso del cod\u00F3n muy sesgado, en comparaci\u00F3n con la c\u00E9lula hu\u00E9sped. Se ha sugerido que este sesgo de codones juega un papel en la regulaci\u00F3n temporal de sus prote\u00EDnas tard\u00EDas.\u200B La naturaleza del uso del cod\u00F3n-optimizaci\u00F3n del ARNt ha sido ferozmente debatida. No est\u00E1 claro si la utilizaci\u00F3n del cod\u00F3n conduce a la evoluci\u00F3n del ARNt o es al rev\u00E9s. Al menos un modelo matem\u00E1tico se ha desarrollado donde ambos, uso del cod\u00F3n y la expresi\u00F3n del ARNt, co-evolucionan en forma de retroalimentaci\u00F3n (es decir, codones que ya est\u00E1n presentes en altas frecuencias aumentan la expresi\u00F3n de sus correspondientes ARNts, y ARNts que se expresan normalmente en niveles altos incrementan la frecuencia de sus correspondientes codones). Sin embargo, este modelo no parece ser que tenga a\u00FAn confirmaci\u00F3n experimental. Otro problema es que la evoluci\u00F3n de los genes del ARNt ha sido un \u00E1rea de investigaci\u00F3n muy inactiva."@es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "26779"^^ . . . . "Sesgo en el uso de codones"@es . . . . . . . "\u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646"@ar . . "Le biais d'usage du code (RSCU, pour Relative Synonymous Codon Usage en anglais) d\u00E9signe l'utilisation pr\u00E9f\u00E9rentielle d'un des triplets de nucl\u00E9otides ou codons possibles pour coder un acide amin\u00E9. En effet, il existe en g\u00E9n\u00E9ral plusieurs combinaisons de trois nucl\u00E9otides codant le m\u00EAme acide-amin\u00E9 (sauf pour la m\u00E9thionine et le tryptophane), appel\u00E9s codons synonymes, mais certaines de ces combinaisons sont en g\u00E9n\u00E9ral utilis\u00E9es pr\u00E9f\u00E9rentiellement par la cellule. Cette pr\u00E9f\u00E9rence d\u00E9pend \u00E0 la fois de l'organisme, du g\u00E9nome (nucl\u00E9aire, mitochondrial, chloroplastique\u2026). Elle est cependant globalement conserv\u00E9e \u00E0 l'int\u00E9rieur des g\u00E8nes port\u00E9s par un m\u00EAme g\u00E9nome."@fr . . "Le biais d'usage du code (RSCU, pour Relative Synonymous Codon Usage en anglais) d\u00E9signe l'utilisation pr\u00E9f\u00E9rentielle d'un des triplets de nucl\u00E9otides ou codons possibles pour coder un acide amin\u00E9. En effet, il existe en g\u00E9n\u00E9ral plusieurs combinaisons de trois nucl\u00E9otides codant le m\u00EAme acide-amin\u00E9 (sauf pour la m\u00E9thionine et le tryptophane), appel\u00E9s codons synonymes, mais certaines de ces combinaisons sont en g\u00E9n\u00E9ral utilis\u00E9es pr\u00E9f\u00E9rentiellement par la cellule. Cette pr\u00E9f\u00E9rence d\u00E9pend \u00E0 la fois de l'organisme, du g\u00E9nome (nucl\u00E9aire, mitochondrial, chloroplastique\u2026). Elle est cependant globalement conserv\u00E9e \u00E0 l'int\u00E9rieur des g\u00E8nes port\u00E9s par un m\u00EAme g\u00E9nome."@fr . . . . . "2020-07-26"^^ . . . "Vi\u00E9s de uso de c\u00F3don (portugu\u00EAs brasileiro) ou cod\u00E3o (portugu\u00EAs europeu) refere-se a diferen\u00E7as na frequ\u00EAncia de ocorr\u00EAncia de c\u00F3dons sin\u00F4nimos na codifica\u00E7\u00E3o de DNA. Um c\u00F3don \u00E9 uma s\u00E9rie de tr\u00EAs nucleot\u00EDdeos (um tripleto) que codifica um amino\u00E1cido res\u00EDduo espec\u00EDfico em uma cadeia de polipept\u00EDdeo ou para a termina\u00E7\u00E3o de transla\u00E7\u00E3o (c\u00F3dons de parada)."@pt . . . "\u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u0648 \u062A\u062D\u064A\u0632 \u0627\u0633\u062A\u062E\u062F\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 (\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u062C\u0644\u064A\u0632\u064A\u0629: Codon preference)\u200F \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0627\u0641 \u0641\u064A \u062A\u0648\u0627\u062A\u0631 \u0638\u0647\u0648\u0631 \u0641\u064A \u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0645\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645\u060C \u0623\u0648 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0644\u0627\u0633\u062A\u062E\u062F\u0627\u0645 \u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u064A\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0639\u062F\u0629 \u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u062A\u0634\u0641\u0631 \u0646\u0641\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u062D\u0645\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u064A\u0646\u064A. \u0639\u0645\u0648\u0645\u0627\u060C \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064A\u0641\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u064A\u0629 \u0645\u0646\u062D\u0641\u0638\u0629 \u0628\u064A\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0628\u064A\u0646\u0647\u0627\u060C \u0648\u062E\u064A\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062A\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641\u0629 \u0641\u064A \u0627\u0633\u062A\u062E\u062F\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0627\u0644\u062A\u0631\u0627\u062F\u0641\u064A\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062A\u0648\u0627\u062A\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u062F\u0631\u0629. \u0648\u0641\u064A \u0646\u0641\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u062A\u060C \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u062E\u064A\u0627\u0631 \u0644\u064A\u0633 \u062B\u0627\u0628\u062A\u0627 \u062A\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u064A\u0646 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0641\u064A \u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646 \u0628\u062D\u062F \u0630\u0627\u062A\u0647. \u062A\u0633\u0645\u0649 \u0641\u0631\u0636\u064A\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0644\u062F\u064A\u0647\u0627 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644\u0627\u062A \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u062A\u0631\u0627\u062F\u0641\u064A\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u064A\u0646\u0629 \u0628\u0641\u0631\u0636\u064A\u0629 \u062A\u0641\u0636\u064A\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645\u064A. \u0645\u0639 \u062A\u0631\u0627\u0643\u0645 \u062A\u0633\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0627\u062A \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062A \u0627\u0644\u062E\u0627\u0635\u0629 \u0628\u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0641\u064A \u0642\u0648\u0627\u0639\u062F \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064A\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u062C\u0644 \u062A\u062D\u0644\u064A\u0644\u0647\u0627\u060C \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062D \u0648\u0627\u0636\u062D\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062A\u0648\u0632\u064A\u0639 \u063A\u064A\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062A\u0633\u0627\u0648\u064A \u0644\u0644\u0643\u0648\u062F\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062A\u0631\u0627\u062F\u0641\u0629 \u062A\u0624\u062B\u0631 \u0641\u064A\u0647 \u0642\u0648\u0649 \u062A\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064A\u0629 (\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0635\u0637\u0641\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064A\u0639\u064A\u060C \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u062D\u0631\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u064A \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0641\u0631\u0627\u062A) \u0648\u064A\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u064A\u062A\u062C\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0637\u0631\u0642 \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641\u0629 \u0641\u064A \u0623\u062C\u0632\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0627\u062A \u0623\u0648 \u0641\u064A \u0627\u0644\u062C\u064A\u0646\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062A \u0648\u0641\u064A \u0645\u062E\u062A\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0626\u0646\u0627\u062A."@ar . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Per codon usage bias si intende il fenomeno per cui i codoni sinonimi non sono utilizzati in maniera uniforme, ma vi \u00E8 una preferenza nell'uso di certi codoni rispetto ad altri nel codificare un dato amminoacido."@it . . . "\uCF54\uB3C8 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5(\uC601\uC5B4: Codon usage bias)\uC740 DNA \uCF54\uB529\uC5D0\uC11C \uB3D9\uB958 \uCF54\uB3C8\uC758 \uBC1C\uC0DD \uBE48\uB3C4 \uCC28\uC774\uB97C \uC758\uBBF8\uD55C\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8\uC740 \uD3F4\uB9AC\uD3A9\uD2F0\uB4DC \uC5F0\uC1C4\uCCB4(DNA \uBC1C\uD604\uC73C\uB85C \uC778\uD574 \uC0DD\uC131\uB418\uB294 \uB2E8\uBC31\uC9C8)\uC758 \uD2B9\uC815 \uC544\uBBF8\uB178\uC0B0 \uC794\uAE30(residue)\uB97C \uC554\uD638\uD654\uD558\uB294 3\uAC1C\uC758 \uB274\uD074\uB808\uC624\uD0C0\uC774\uB4DC\uB97C \uC758\uBBF8\uD55C\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8\uC740 64 \uC885\uB958(61\uAC1C\uC758 \uCF54\uB3C8\uACFC 3\uAC1C\uC758 \uC885\uACB0 \uCF54\uB3C8)\uAC00 \uC874\uC7AC\uD558\uC9C0\uB9CC, \uADF8\uAC83\uC774 \uC9C0\uC815\uD558\uB294 \uC544\uBBF8\uB178\uC0B0\uC740 20\uAC00\uC9C0\uC5D0 \uBD88\uACFC\uD558\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC740 \uC5EC\uAE30\uC11C \uCF54\uB3C8\uC758 \uC885\uB958\uB294 \uB2E4\uB974\uB098, \uACB0\uACFC\uC801\uC73C\uB85C\uB294 \uAC19\uC740 \uC544\uBBF8\uB178\uC0B0\uC744 \uC9C0\uC815\uD558\uB294 \uC885\uB958\uC758 \uCF54\uB3C8\uC774 \uD2B9\uC815 \uBD80\uC704\uC5D0\uC11C \uACFC\uBC00\uD558\uAC8C \uBD84\uD3EC\uB418\uB294 \uD604\uC0C1\uC744 \uC758\uBBF8\uD55C\uB2E4. \uC774\uB7EC\uD55C \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5 \uD604\uC0C1\uC740 \uC9C4\uD654 \uACFC\uC815\uC5D0\uC11C \uC720\uC758\uD55C \uC758\uBBF8\uB97C \uC9C0\uB2CC\uB2E4\uB294 \uAC83\uC774 HIVE-Codon Usage Tables (HIVE-CUTs)\uC640 \uAC19\uC740 \uC720\uC804\uD559\uACC4\uC758 \uC5EC\uB7EC \uD504\uB85C\uC81D\uD2B8\uC5D0\uC11C \uC99D\uBA85\uB418\uC5C8\uB2E4. \uD2B9\uD788, CoCoPUTs\uC640 TissueCoCoPUTs\uC640 \uAC19\uC740 \uD504\uB85C\uC81D\uD2B8\uC5D0\uC11C \uC0B0\uCD9C\uD55C \uB370\uC774\uD130\uC5D0\uC11C\uB294 \uBC1C\uD604 \uAC00\uB2A5\uD55C \uC11C\uC5F4 \uC815\uBCF4 52\uAC1C\uB97C \uAE30\uC900\uC73C\uB85C \uC774\uAC83\uB4E4\uC758 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC744 \uD1B5\uACC4\uD654\uD558\uC600\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC740 \uBC88\uC5ED \uCD5C\uC801\uD654\uB97C \uC704\uD55C \uB3CC\uC5F0\uBCC0\uC774 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uACFC \uC790\uC5F0 \uC120\uD0DD \uC0AC\uC774\uC758 \uADE0\uD615\uC744 \uBC18\uC601\uD55C\uB2E4\uB294 \uAC83\uC774 \uC77C\uBC18\uC801\uC73C\uB85C \uC778\uC815\uB41C\uB2E4. \uD2B9\uD788, \uC9C4\uD654 \uC18D\uB3C4\uAC00 \uBE60\uB978 \uB300\uC7A5\uADE0\uACFC \uCD9C\uC544\uD615\uD6A8\uBAA8(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)\uB294 \uCD5C\uC801\uC758 \uCF54\uB3C8 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC744 tRNA \uD480\uC5D0 \uBE60\uB974\uAC8C \uBC18\uC601\uD558\uB294 \uAC83\uC774 \uBC1D\uD600\uC84C\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC5D0 \uC758\uD55C \uCF54\uB3C8\uC758 \uCD5C\uC801\uD654\uB294 \uB354 \uBE60\uB978 \uBC88\uC5ED \uC18D\uB3C4\uC640 \uB192\uC740 \uBC88\uC5ED, \uBC1C\uD604 \uC815\uD655\uC131\uC744 \uB2F9\uC131\uD558\uB294 \uB370\uC5D0 \uC720\uB9AC\uD55C \uC870\uAC74\uC744 \uD615\uC131\uD55C\uB2E4. \uADF8\uB9AC\uACE0 \uC0C1\uAE30\uB41C \uBC14\uC640 \uAC19\uC774, \uCF54\uB3C8 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC740 \uACE0\uB3C4\uB85C \uBC1C\uB2EC\uD55C \uC720\uC804\uC790\uD480\uC5D0\uC11C \uB354\uC6B1 \uD65C\uBC1C\uD560 \uAC83\uC73C\uB85C \uC608\uCE21\uB418\uACE0 \uC788\uB2E4. \uBC18\uBA74, \uB192\uC740 \uC9C4\uD654 \uC131\uC7A5\uC744 \uAC16\uCD94\uC9C0 \uC54A\uC558\uAC70\uB098, \uAC8C\uB188 \uD06C\uAE30\uAC00 \uC791\uC740 \uB2E4\uB978 \uC720\uAE30\uCCB4\uC5D0\uC11C\uB294 \uCF54\uB3C8 \uC0AC\uC6A9\uBE48\uB3C4 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC740 \uC77C\uBC18\uC801\uC73C\uB85C \uACB0\uC5EC\uB41C\uB2E4. \uCF54\uB3C8 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC5D0\uC11C \uD45C\uC801\uC73C\uB85C \uD558\uB294 \uD2B9\uC815 \uCF54\uB3C8\uC5D0 \uB300\uD55C \uC120\uD638\uB3C4\uB294 \uAC8C\uB188 \uB0B4 \uD2B9\uC815\uD55C \uB3CC\uC5F0\uBCC0\uC774 \uD3B8\uD5A5\uC5D0 \uC758\uD574 \uACB0\uC815\uB41C\uB2E4. \uC774\uB7EC\uD55C \uD604\uC0C1\uC758 \uC608\uB294 \uD638\uBAA8 \uC0AC\uD53C\uC5D4\uC2A4 \uC0AC\uD53C\uC5D4\uC2A4\uC885\uACFC \uD5EC\uB9AC\uCF54\uBC15\uD130 \uD30C\uC77C\uB85C\uB9AC(Helicobacter pylori)\uC5D0\uC11C \uAD00\uCC30\uB41C\uB2E4."@ko . . . . . . . . "Vi\u00E9s de uso de c\u00F3don"@pt . "Codon usage bias"@en . "Codonverwendung (englisch Codon Usage), auch Codon Bias, beschreibt das Ph\u00E4nomen, dass Varianten des universellen genetischen Codes von verschiedenen Spezies unterschiedlich h\u00E4ufig verwendet werden. Bestimmte Codons des degenerierten Codes werden bevorzugt benutzt, was letztlich der tRNA-Konzentration innerhalb der Zelle entspricht. Die Codonverwendung spielt eine gro\u00DFe Rolle bei der Regulation der Proteinbiosynthese. Selten verwendete Codons k\u00F6nnen die Translation bremsen, w\u00E4hrend h\u00E4ufig genutzte Codons die Translation beschleunigen k\u00F6nnen."@de . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Codon usage bias"@it . . . . . . "Codon usage bias refers to differences in the frequency of occurrence of synonymous codons in coding DNA. A codon is a series of three nucleotides (a triplet) that encodes a specific amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain or for the termination of translation (stop codons). There are 64 different codons (61 codons encoding for amino acids and 3 stop codons) but only 20 different translated amino acids. The overabundance in the number of codons allows many amino acids to be encoded by more than one codon. Because of such redundancy it is said that the genetic code is degenerate. The genetic codes of different organisms are often biased towards using one of the several codons that encode the same amino acid over the others\u2014that is, a greater frequency of one will be found than expected by chance. How such biases arise is a much debated area of molecular evolution. Codon usage tables detailing genomic codon usage bias for organisms in GenBank and RefSeq can be found in the HIVE-Codon Usage Tables (HIVE-CUTs) project, which contains two distinct databases, CoCoPUTs and TissueCoCoPUTs. Together, these two databases provide comprehensive, up-to-date codon, codon pair and dinucleotide usage statistics for all organisms with available sequence information and 52 human tissues, respectively. It is generally acknowledged that codon biases reflect a balance between mutational biases and natural selection (mutation\u2013selection balance) for translational optimization. Optimal codons in fast-growing microorganisms, like Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast), reflect the composition of their respective genomic transfer RNA (tRNA) pool. It is thought that optimal codons help to achieve faster translation rates and high accuracy. As a result of these factors, translational selection is expected to be stronger in highly expressed genes, as is indeed the case for the above-mentioned organisms. In other organisms that do not show high growing rates or that present small genomes, codon usage optimization is normally absent, and codon preferences are determined by the characteristic mutational biases seen in that particular genome. Examples of this are Homo sapiens (human) and Helicobacter pylori. Organisms that show an intermediate level of codon usage optimization include Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode worm), Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (sea urchin), and Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress). Several viral families (herpesvirus, lentivirus, papillomavirus, polyomavirus, adenovirus, and parvovirus) are known to encode structural proteins that display heavily skewed codon usage compared to the host cell. The suggestion has been made that these codon biases play a role in the temporal regulation of their late proteins. The nature of the codon usage-tRNA optimization has been fiercely debated. It is not clear whether codon usage drives tRNA evolution or vice versa. At least one mathematical model has been developed where both codon usage and tRNA expression co-evolve in feedback fashion (i.e., codons already present in high frequencies drive up the expression of their corresponding tRNAs, and tRNAs normally expressed at high levels drive up the frequency of their corresponding codons). However, this model does not seem to yet have experimental confirmation. Another problem is that the evolution of tRNA genes has been a very inactive area of research."@en . . . . "Per codon usage bias si intende il fenomeno per cui i codoni sinonimi non sono utilizzati in maniera uniforme, ma vi \u00E8 una preferenza nell'uso di certi codoni rispetto ad altri nel codificare un dato amminoacido. Un codone \u00E8 una serie di tre nucleotidi (tripletta) che codifica per uno specifico residuo amminoacidico in una catena polipeptidica o, alternativamente, per la fine della traduzione proteica (codone di stop). Esistono in tutto 64 codoni (61 sono quelli codificanti per gli amminoacidi, 3 invece sono quelli che determinano la terminazione della traduzione) per i 20 differenti amminoacidi proteici, motivo per cui il codice genetico \u00E8 detto degenerato (o ridondante): ogni amminoacido pu\u00F2 essere codificato da pi\u00F9 codoni, detti sinonimi. L\u2019uso di un codone sinonimo rispetto ad un altro \u00E8 indistinguibile a livello del prodotto proteico; tuttavia, alcuni tra i codoni sinonimi mostrano una frequenza di utilizzo superiore a quella attesa se la loro scelta avvenisse semplicemente in maniera casuale. Tale uso preferenziale dei codoni sinonimi \u00E8 stato per la prima volta individuato intorno al 1970 ed \u00E8 un fenomeno oggi noto come codon usage bias."@it . . "Codonverwendung (englisch Codon Usage), auch Codon Bias, beschreibt das Ph\u00E4nomen, dass Varianten des universellen genetischen Codes von verschiedenen Spezies unterschiedlich h\u00E4ufig verwendet werden. Bestimmte Codons des degenerierten Codes werden bevorzugt benutzt, was letztlich der tRNA-Konzentration innerhalb der Zelle entspricht. Die Codonverwendung spielt eine gro\u00DFe Rolle bei der Regulation der Proteinbiosynthese. Selten verwendete Codons k\u00F6nnen die Translation bremsen, w\u00E4hrend h\u00E4ufig genutzte Codons die Translation beschleunigen k\u00F6nnen."@de .